By Eben van Tonder, 3 Feb 25

Introduction

The use of Pale, Soft, and Exudative (PSE) pork and freeze-thaw-damaged chicken in ham production presents significant challenges due to protein denaturation and loss of water-binding capacity. These issues lead to high purge, weak texture, and poor sliceability, severely impacting product quality.

For over fifteen years, I have studied hydrocolloid systems to restore lost protein functionality in processed meats, evaluating both historical and modern solutions. This article explores three primary hydrocolloid-based systems—alginate, carrageenan, and konjac gum—to determine the most effective formulation for compensating for damaged proteins and improving texture and water retention in PSE pork and thawed chicken hams.

Challenges of PSE Pork and Freeze-Thaw Chicken in Ham Processing

PSE pork results from rapid post-mortem pH decline while the carcass is still warm, leading to protein denaturation, excessive purge, and poor water retention. Similarly, chicken hams that have undergone brine injection and subsequent freezing-thawing experience loss of water-soluble proteins, further impairing their ability to bind moisture and form a cohesive texture during processing.

The two primary problems with these meats are:

• Loss of Protein Functionality – The natural protein network responsible for water retention and texture formation is severely damaged, making traditional brine formulations ineffective.
• Excessive Purge and Weak Binding – PSE pork cannot retain water, and thawed chicken releases excessive free moisture, resulting in unstable emulsions and poor slicing properties.

Hydrocolloid-based systems offer a promising approach to compensate for these deficiencies by forming alternative gel networks that mimic the binding and water-holding capabilities of functional myofibrillar proteins.

Hydrocolloid-Based Solutions

Optimised Hydrocolloid-Based Solutions for Whole Muscle Hams (Salt Brine-Compatible, High Injection Rate)

Best Injection Strategy for Overcoming PSE Pork and Poor Chicken Meat Quality

Key Injection Parameters

• Injection Level: 40–45% of meat weight to compensate for poor quality meat
• Post-Injection Rest Time: 12–16 hours for optimal protein interaction and binding
• Processing Steps:
  1. Injection: High-pressure multi-needle injector for even distribution
  2. Tumbling: 2 hours in vacuum tumbler at 4°C to enhance binding
  3. Stuffing into Casings: Firm compression ensures even shape and structure
  4. Cooking: 75°C for 3.5 hours in steam or water bath
  5. Smoking and Drying: Final core temperature of 70°C ensures stability

Carrageenan (Kappa and Iota) System (Best for Firm Texture and High Water Retention)

Mechanism

• Kappa-carrageenan forms a strong gel that improves sliceability and cohesion
• Iota-carrageenan enhances elasticity and water retention, preventing purge
• Works well with high-salt brines without interfering with hydrocolloid function

Recommended Inclusion Levels

Ingredient	% in Brine	Final % in Meat	Final ppm in Meat
Kappa-Carrageenan	1.0–1.2%	0.40–0.50%	4,000–5,000 ppm
Iota-Carrageenan	0.5–0.7%	0.20–0.30%	2,000–3,000 ppm
Salt (NaCl)	8.0–12.0%	3.2–4.8%	32,000–48,000 ppm
Dextrose	1.0–1.5%	0.4–0.6%	4,000–6,000 ppm
Erythorbate	0.05–0.10%	0.02–0.04%	200–400 ppm
Phosphates	0.3–0.5%	0.12–0.20%	1,200–2,000 ppm
Water	Balance	–	–

Advantages

• Maximises water retention and meat cohesion
• Prevents purge and excessive cooking loss
• Heat-stable gel ensures a firm bite
• Compatible with high-injection brines

Limitations

• Overuse can result in excessive firmness
• Requires uniform dispersion to prevent localised gelation

Success Likelihood:

• PSE Pork: 9/10
• Low-Quality Chicken: 8/10

Konjac Gum + Carrageenan Blend (Best for Balanced Texture and Elasticity)

Mechanism

• Konjac gum provides a high-viscosity gel network, preventing syneresis
• Kappa-carrageenan reinforces firmness while keeping muscle fibres flexible
• Best for products requiring elasticity without excessive hardness

Recommended Inclusion Levels

Ingredient	% in Brine	Final % in Meat	Final ppm in Meat
Konjac Gum	0.3–0.6%	0.12–0.24%	1,200–2,400 ppm
Kappa-Carrageenan	0.7–1.0%	0.28–0.40%	2,800–4,000 ppm
Salt (NaCl)	8.0–12.0%	3.2–4.8%	32,000–48,000 ppm
Dextrose	1.0–1.5%	0.4–0.6%	4,000–6,000 ppm
Erythorbate	0.05–0.10%	0.02–0.04%	200–400 ppm
Phosphates	0.3–0.5%	0.12–0.20%	1,200–2,000 ppm
Water	Balance	–	–

Advantages

• Excellent hydration and flexibility
• Strong cohesion without excessive rubberiness
• Reduces cooking loss and enhances sensory properties
• Compatible with high-injection applications

Limitations

• Less rigid than carrageenan alone
• Requires controlled hydration to prevent inconsistencies

Success Likelihood:

• PSE Pork: 8/10
• Low-Quality Chicken: 9/10

Final Recommendation for High-Injection Whole Muscle Hams

• For Firm Binding & Maximum Water Retention: Use Carrageenan (Kappa + Iota) System (Best for PSE pork, high firmness, minimal purge)
• For Balanced Texture & Good Elasticity: Use Konjac + Carrageenan Blend (Best for low-quality chicken, maintaining structure without toughness)

With the 40–45% injection level, these systems optimise binding, moisture retention, and texture, ensuring whole muscle pieces remain intact during cooking and drying.

References

• References
• Pietrasik, Z., & Li-Chan, E. (2020). Carrageenan and Alginate Use in Processed Meat: A Comparative Review. Meat Science Journal.
• Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2023). Hydrocolloids in Processed Meat: Functionality and Mechanisms.
• USDA Research Reports. (2022). Optimisation of Hydrocolloid Blends for Water Retention in PSE Pork and Poultry Products.
• Santos, F. A., & Ruiz-Capillas, C. (2021). Influence of Hydrocolloids on the Physicochemical Properties of Cured Meats. Journal of Food Science and Technology.
• Toldrá, F. (2019). Handbook of Meat Processing. Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.
• Xiong, Y. L., & Kupski, A. R. (2020). Functional Meat Processing: Hydrocolloid Interactions with Myofibrillar Proteins. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology.