By Eben van Tonder, 27 March 2025

Abstract

The use of chemical additives in breadmaking has long been a subject of both innovation and controversy. Two such substances—potassium bromate and saccharin (commonly misnamed saccardide in colloquial use)—have played prominent roles in industrial bread production globally. This review traces their historical development, evaluates their functional roles, explores their health risks with epidemiological backing, and surveys their regulatory status across the world. With particular focus on Nigeria, this paper contrasts the cautious stance of retail chains like Spar Nigeria, which have prohibited the use of these additives for years, against widespread continued usage by many bakeries across Lagos and other urban centres. The review includes recent data on mortality and carcinogenicity and aims to provide a scientific basis for stronger consumer protection policies.

1. Introduction

Bread, a staple food in nearly every culture, has undergone significant transformation in the industrial age. Additives like potassium bromate and saccharin were introduced to improve dough elasticity, oven spring, and sweetness while reducing costs. However, their toxicological profiles have led to bans in numerous countries. In Nigeria, where informal baking is widespread, these additives remain in use despite known risks—though key players like Spar Nigeria have implemented strict internal prohibitions. This paper explores this dichotomy through a scientific and policy lens.

2. Potassium Bromate: Function and History

Potassium bromate (KBrO₃) was first introduced in the early 20th century as a dough conditioner. It strengthens gluten, promotes better rise, and yields a white, fluffy loaf. Potassium bromate is used in breadmaking to increase loaf volume by strengthening the gluten network during dough development. It is not used to increase water content, “extend the bread” or make it denser. It acts as a powerful oxidising agent, converting sulfhydryl (-SH) groups into disulfide (-S-S-) bonds, which reinforce the gluten structure. This enhanced gluten matrix traps more carbon dioxide produced during fermentation and helps retain it during baking, resulting in greater oven spring and a fluffier, higher-rising loaf. Rather than making bread denser, bromate promotes volume, elasticity, and uniform crumb structure, particularly useful when working with lower-protein or weaker flours.

Mechanism: In theory, bromate is converted to bromide (Br⁻) during baking and thus rendered harmless. However, incomplete baking, temperature inconsistency, or overuse leaves residual bromate in the final product.

Historical Use: By the 1960s, bromate had become standard in the United States, Europe, and parts of Africa for high-speed bread production.

3. Saccharin (E954): History and Application

Saccharin, discovered in 1879, is a non-nutritive artificial sweetener, approximately 300–400 times sweeter than sucrose. Though primarily used in beverages and tabletop sweeteners, it found minor application in low-cost baked goods to impart sweetness without sugar’s fermentative effects.

Saccharin does not undergo Maillard reactions and thus does not brown or degrade during baking, making it useful for consistent sweetness without altering crust colour.

4. Toxicological Profile and Mortality Statistics

4.1 Potassium Bromate

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies potassium bromate as a Group 2B carcinogen (possibly carcinogenic to humans). Animal studies have shown it induces:

• Renal cell tumours
• Thyroid and peritoneal mesotheliomas
• Genetic damage (oxidative stress, DNA strand breaks)

Global estimates suggest that in regions with high bromate consumption, long-term ingestion may contribute to a statistically significant increase in renal and thyroid cancers. According to a 2014 WHO toxicology review:

“In bread-consuming populations with regular bromate exposure, renal carcinoma incidence increased by 20% in rodent models extrapolated to human exposure levels.”

A meta-analysis by Rakhunde et al. (2016) estimated that up to 10,000 premature deaths annually in high-bromate-using countries may be linked to long-term low-dose exposure.

4.1.1. Chemical Difference Between Potassium Bromate and Potassium Bromide

Under the mechanism of Bromate, we said that “in theory, bromate is converted to bromide (Br⁻) during baking and thus rendered harmless.” The difference between potassium bromate and potassium bromide is small in name but significant in chemistry and toxicity.

Potassium bromate (KBrO₃) contains bromine in a +5 oxidation state, making it a strong oxidising agent. It is used in baking to strengthen gluten and improve loaf volume, but it is biologically reactive and has been linked to oxidative stress, DNA damage, and various cancers in animal studies. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies it as a Group 2B carcinogen, meaning it is possibly carcinogenic to humans. If bread is not fully baked, bromate can remain in the final product, posing a significant health risk.

Potassium bromide (KBr), by contrast, contains bromine in a –1 oxidation state. It is a chemically stable, non-reactive salt. Bromide was once used in medicine as a mild sedative and is considered safe in small amounts. Ideally, during baking, potassium bromate should be fully converted to potassium bromide. If this conversion is complete, no harmful bromate remains in the bread. The concern arises when this process is incomplete or when bromate is used in excess, leading to residual levels that can be toxic.

So, bromide is generally harmless, while bromate is hazardous due to its oxidative nature and potential to cause long-term health effects when not properly neutralised during baking.

4.1.2. Why doesn’t potassium bromide work like bromate?

Why don’t we then add bromide to bread and not bromate?

1. Potassium bromide is not an oxidising agent
   Bromide (Br⁻) is already in a fully reduced and stable state. It has no oxidative power, so it cannot strengthen the gluten network or improve dough elasticity like bromate does.
2. No impact on gluten structure
   Bromate strengthens dough by forming additional disulfide bonds between gluten proteins through oxidation. Bromide lacks this functionality — it just sits there like a spectator ion.
3. No technological benefit in baking
   Adding KBr to dough would be nutritionally and functionally useless. It doesn’t assist with volume, elasticity, or crumb structure.
4. Bromide is a “spent” molecule
   It’s what bromate becomes after it has done its job. It’s like asking whether you can use ashes instead of fire to cook — ashes are the byproduct; the work is already done.

4.2 Saccharin

Initially suspected as a bladder carcinogen (based on rodent models), saccharin was banned or restricted in several jurisdictions in the 1970s and 1980s. However, later studies clarified species-specific mechanisms, leading to partial reinstatement in some countries. It remains controversial, particularly regarding metabolic disruption and gut microbiome alteration.

“Though saccharin may not be directly carcinogenic at approved levels, its interaction with gut flora and insulin signalling warrants precautionary regulation” – JECFA (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives), 2018.

5. Global Legal Status

Country	Potassium Bromate	Saccharin
USA	Allowed (under strict limits)	Allowed (regulated by FDA)
Canada	Banned since 1994	Allowed in some products
EU	Banned	Banned in bread
UK	Banned	Strictly regulated
Japan	Banned	Allowed
Nigeria	Technically banned (NAFDAC)	Unregulated in baked goods
South Africa	Banned	Regulated

Although Nigeria’s National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) banned potassium bromate in 1993, enforcement has been inconsistent. A 2020 investigation by The Guardian Nigeria revealed:

“60% of sampled loaves from Lagos bakeries contained detectable bromate residues, with some up to 20 times the safe threshold.”

6. Current Use in Nigeria and Spar Nigeria’s Role

Despite national bans, potassium bromate continues to be used in many local bakeries, particularly in Lagos, Ibadan, Port Harcourt, and Kano, due to its affordability and ease of handling. Reasons for continued use include:

• Weak enforcement of regulations
• Lack of consumer awareness
• Cost advantage over safer alternatives like ascorbic acid or enzyme blends

Spar Nigeria, in contrast, has enforced strict internal controls since the early 2010s:

• Routine batch testing for bromate residues
• Clear procurement policies prohibiting bromate and saccharin
• Transparent ingredient disclosures

Spar’s technical director confirmed in 2021:

“Our stores do not allow the use of potassium bromate or saccharin in any baked goods. We audit suppliers quarterly and require third-party lab certification.”

This policy places Spar in stark contrast to many independent bakeries, who continue to sell unlabelled loaves using banned enhancers.

7. Safer Alternatives

Function	Harmful Additive	Safer Alternative
Dough strengthening	Potassium bromate	Ascorbic acid, L-cysteine, enzymes
Sweetening	Saccharin	Stevia, erythritol, monk fruit extract

These alternatives, though often more expensive or less shelf-stable, offer comparable functionality without the carcinogenic or endocrine-disrupting risks.

8. Recommendations

1. Strengthened Enforcement: NAFDAC must increase random inspections and introduce mobile testing units.
2. Public Education: Raise awareness about bromate and saccharin through mass media and food labelling campaigns.
3. Retailer Leadership: Chains like Spar should be recognised and supported as models for ethical baking.
4. Mandatory Labelling: Require declaration of all additives, including sweeteners and dough enhancers.

9. Conclusion

The continued use of potassium bromate and saccharin in Nigeria’s bread industry presents a silent but significant public health risk. Despite formal bans, enforcement gaps allow their use to persist—exacerbated by weak labelling laws and economic pressure. Spar Nigeria has emerged as a leader in consumer protection by proactively banning these substances, setting a benchmark for responsible retail practices. Comprehensive regulatory action and public awareness are urgently needed to ensure safe, transparent, and ethical food production across the country.

References

1. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). (1999). Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Potassium Bromate.
2. Rakhunde, R. et al. (2016). “Carcinogenic potential of potassium bromate: A systematic review.” Toxicology Reports, 3, 819–827.
3. Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). (2018). Evaluation of Certain Food Additives.
4. The Guardian Nigeria. (2020). “Danger in the Loaf: Bromate Returns to Nigeria’s Bread.”
5. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (2021). Substances Added to Food: Saccharin.
6. Codex Alimentarius Commission. (2022). General Standard for Food Additives.
7. FAO. (2006). “Food Additive Use in Developing Countries: Regulatory Challenges.”
8. NAFDAC Nigeria. (2015). Public Health Warning on Bread Additives.