By Eben van Tonder, 7 Fev 25

In Lagos, Between Past and Present

I am in Lagos, standing at the intersection of history and science, where the old world meets the new, where knowledge, sometimes hard-won, sometimes forcibly resisted, finds its way forward despite centuries of struggle. The streets are alive with movement, the scent of smoked meat and frying plantains drifting through the air, blending with the diesel fumes of a restless city. Here, I am setting up a curing operation, immersed in preservation chemistry. But Lagos has given me something unexpected, an unbroken thread that links my work to a much older battle, not just against time and spoilage, but against a dreaded disease.

Smallpox was once the great terror of Europe. It was not science alone that first fought back, but observation, curiosity, and the courage to test the untested. Milkmaids in England, it was said, had smooth skin untouched by the ravages of smallpox but why? If fell upon Edward Jenner to create the foundation of modern vaccination.

In the alleys and courtyards of West Africa, long before Jenner, before the Royal Society, before any European physician wrote of inoculation, another knowledge had already taken root. A method from West Africa where healers used what is known today as variolation to combat the disease dramatically. How did they do it and how did this knowledge find its way to the West?

In Austria, Empress Maria Theresa, one of Europe’s most formidable rulers, recognized the power of inoculation and led by example, ensuring her children were among the first to receive the treatment. It was a bold move, in keeping with Austria’s long-standing tradition of embracing scientific progress. And yet, even as Europe debated the merits of vaccination, a different battle was playing out in the sacred groves of West Africa, where smallpox was not merely an affliction, but a god.

The Orisha Sopona, feared and revered, was said to wield smallpox as a divine punishment. His priests held dominion over life and death, controlling outbreaks as both disease-bringers and healers. It was not only faith that kept them in power, but something closer to biological warfare namely deliberate infections used to maintain fear and control. A remarkable Nigeria, Dr. Oguntola Sapara risked everything to bring that power to an end.

These stories unexpectedly found me. My work in Lagos brought me into contact with a friend, who shared the account of Dr. Sapara’s which inspired me. Working on a curing operation, I find myself unexpectedly entangled in a story that stretches across continents and centuries and the story of Smallpox and meat curing started to intersect and mingle most unexpectedly. Even my newfound relationship with Austria featured as it intersects both with meat curing and the smallpox vaccine. From the royal courts of Austria to the secretive shrines of Nigeria, from Jenner’s experiments to Sapara’s courage, from smallpox to the curing salts of Calne, I see the same forces at work—the relentless push of science against the weight of fear, tradition, and control.

This is more than a history of disease or a story of preservation. It is about how knowledge moves, through empires and through whispers, across oceans and across time. And sometimes, it lands unexpectedly in the hands of someone standing in Lagos, realizing that their own work, their own small piece of history, is part of something much larger.

The Milkmaid’s Secret: Edward Jenner’s Discovery of Vaccination

In the late 18th century, smallpox was one of the most feared diseases in Europe. It had a mortality rate of around 30%, leaving survivors scarred for life. Among rural communities, however, an intriguing observation had been made—milkmaids who had contracted cowpox never seemed to develop smallpox.

Edward Jenner, an English physician, took note of this. Cowpox was a mild disease that affected cows and could be transmitted to humans who worked closely with them. Unlike smallpox, it did not cause severe illness, and those who recovered from cowpox seemed to be protected against smallpox.

Both cowpox and smallpox belong to the orthopoxvirus family, meaning they share key structural and antigenic properties. When the human immune system encounters cowpox, it produces antibodies that also recognise and neutralise smallpox. This means that cowpox acts as a natural immunising agent, training the body to resist the more dangerous smallpox virus.

Jenner tested this idea in 1796 by taking pus from a cowpox sore on a milkmaid, Sarah Nelmes, and inoculating James Phipps, an eight-year-old boy. Phipps developed mild symptoms but never became seriously ill. Weeks later, Jenner deliberately exposed him to smallpox, but the boy did not contract the disease. This experiment confirmed that exposure to cowpox granted immunity to smallpox, leading to the development of the world’s first vaccine.

At the time, Jenner’s work was met with scepticism. Some feared that receiving a vaccine derived from cows could cause recipients to grow bovine features—a superstition fuelled by anti-vaccination movements. Despite this, Jenner’s method gradually gained acceptance, saving millions of lives.

The African Contribution to Smallpox Immunity: The Story of Onesimus

While Jenner’s work was groundbreaking, Africans had already developed a natural method of inoculating against smallpox centuries earlier. One of the earliest documented examples comes from Onesimus, an enslaved African man in colonial Massachusetts. In 1721, during a devastating smallpox outbreak in Boston, Onesimus told his owner, Cotton Mather, about a method practised in his homeland in West Africa.

In West Africa, it was common practice to introduce a small amount of material from smallpox sores into a scratch on the skin of healthy individuals. This method, called variolation, often caused a mild form of the disease, after which the person would recover and be immune to future infections.

Variolation involved exposing individuals to live smallpox material to induce a milder infection, a risky but long-established practice. Vaccination, later refined with cowpox as a safer alternative, sought to eliminate the dangers associated with variolation.

Mather shared this information with Dr Zabdiel Boylston, who used it to inoculate hundreds of people in Boston during the 1721 outbreak. Although the method was controversial at the time, it proved effective: the mortality rate among the inoculated was only 2%, compared to 14% among those who were not inoculated.

This knowledge from West Africa played a crucial role in shaping early inoculation practices in America and eventually influenced the development of modern vaccines.

Jan Ingenhousz and Bowood Estate: The Spread of Smallpox Inoculation

Jenner’s discovery might have remained a local curiosity had it not been for Dr Jan Ingenhousz, a Dutch-born British physician and scientist. He was instrumental in spreading inoculation techniques across Europe, particularly among the European aristocracy.

Among the earliest European leaders to embrace smallpox inoculation was Empress Maria Theresa of Austria (1717–1780). The Austrian Habsburgs were one of the most powerful ruling dynasties in history, and Maria Theresa ruled over a vast empire. At a time when many monarchs viewed medicine with suspicion, she took decisive action to protect her family and subjects from smallpox.

In 1768, Maria Theresa ordered that her own children be inoculated against smallpox. She did not simply command it for others—she led by example, making sure the Habsburg heirs were protected first.

Austria’s ruling house was unique in consistently supporting science as a foundation of governance and national identity. This was not an isolated case—Austria’s scientific culture was systematically developed through:

• Imperial-funded medical schools and research institutes.
• A tradition of employing some of Europe’s most brilliant scientists.
• A belief that progress in science strengthened Austria’s geopolitical power.

Some of the most important scientists who flourished under Habsburg rule included:

• Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), the father of genetics, conducted his pea plant experiments in an Austrian monastery.
• Josef Stefan (1835–1893) formulated the Stefan–Boltzmann law, a key principle in thermodynamics.
• Lise Meitner (1878–1968) helped discover nuclear fission, leading to the development of atomic energy.

By supporting vaccination early, Austria was aligned with its broader tradition of embracing scientific advancement as a means of strengthening both the empire and its people.

The attitude towards the sciences was extremely important in adopting the new vaccination system. However, despite being open to scientific progress, her primary motivation for trying the new vaccine was very personal namely the devastating loss of three of her children to smallpox. In 1768, Maria Theresa ordered that her own children be inoculated, leading by example rather than imposing it on others. Her two surviving sons, Archduke Ferdinand and Archduke Maximilian, received the treatment.

The decision came at a time when inoculation was still controversial. A fierce debate existed between traditional variolation, which had been independently practised in China, West Africa, and the Ottoman Empire, and the newer method of vaccination.

Serious religious objections existed against the use of vaccines. Religious concerns with variolation centred on the idea that deliberately inducing illness, even in a controlled manner, was an act of interference with divine will. In Catholic societies, smallpox was often regarded as a test from God, and some theologians argued that using variolation to prevent it was an example of Deus tentare or tempting God by trying to evade divine judgment. The practice also carried a moral dilemma: if a person died from the procedure, it could be seen as an unnatural death brought about by human arrogance. Some clergy feared that endorsing such methods would undermine faith in miraculous healing, saints, and traditional religious protections against disease.

The introduction of vaccination, particularly Edward Jenner’s use of cowpox to immunize against smallpox, raised additional concerns. The idea of introducing material from an animal into the human body struck many as unnatural and, in some cases, blasphemous. Some religious figures viewed it as an affront to the divine order, arguing that human health should not be dependent on an animal’s disease. In more rural and traditional communities, there was even fear that receiving cowpox might cause a person to develop animal-like features, a superstition fueled by caricatures and public mistrust of new medical practices. Despite these objections, the overwhelming success of vaccination in preventing smallpox gradually eroded religious opposition, and in time, both Catholic and Protestant societies came to accept it as a necessary advancement in public health.

While many feared the unknown effects of the newer method, Maria Theresa’s embrace of inoculation signalled Austria’s broader tradition of supporting science as a foundation of governance and national identity. Austria’s ruling house was unique in its consistent patronage of scientific progress.

Bowood Estate, Calne, and the Fight for Science

Bowood Estate now takes front and centre stage in the story. I became intimately familiar with Bowood as the manor house of the Wiltshire landowner on whose property Calne developed. The small town of Calne for long time was the centre of the industrialisation of the meat curing industry in the UK with an ancient and fascinating history that stretches back to Ireland and across the Celtic Sea and the Irish Sea into Europe and right into the heart of Austria. For a detailed treatment of this, see my work, “Understanding William Oake“

The Georgian country house in Wiltshire was not only a centre of meat curing through the work of C & bT Harris in Calns but also for scientific inquiry. The estate was the economic and cultural nucleus around which Calne grew, and its presence fostered an environment where industry and innovation flourished.

My introduction to Calne was through meat curing, but Bowood became famous in 1774 when Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen there, fundamentally changing the scientific understanding of gases and respiration. Jan Ingenhousz, who had already made his mark in smallpox inoculation, took up residence at Bowood and conducted his pioneering experiments on photosynthesis, proving that plants release oxygen when exposed to sunlight and absorb carbon dioxide in the dark.

My Australia interest

Through my engagement to a lady from Austria, I became interested in the history of science in Austria and in the course of reading up on it, I discovered the unique contributions of the Austrian Royal Family to science.

Well, truth be told, my Wife-to-be introduced me to Empress Zita and her husband, Emperor Karl, early on in our relationship. I was so impressed by this remarkable family that I added English subtitles to an interview with Empress Zita about her recollections of events leading up to World War I in An Interview with Emprezz Zita.

I was therefore not surprised at all to learn this family was the first in Europe to be vaccinated against smallpox at a time when vaccines were seen with as much suspicion as during the COVID-19 pandemic.  Their support for vaccination, which set a precedent for public health policy, stood in sharp contrast to the excesses often associated with royalty.

Emperor Karl I of Austria (1887–1922) and his wife Empress Zita of Bourbon-Parma (1892–1989) were descendants of Maria Theresa.

1. Maria Theresa → Her son Leopold II (Holy Roman Emperor) → His son Francis II (the last Holy Roman Emperor, later Emperor Francis I of Austria)

2. Francis I → His son Archduke Franz Karl (father of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Maximilian I of Mexico)

3. Franz Joseph I (ruled Austria-Hungary) was the grand-uncle of Karl I.

Maria Theresa was then Karl I’s great-great-great-great-grandmother through the Habsburg-Lorraine lineage.

While working in Lagos, Nigeria, setting up a curing operation, I encountered this remarkable historical link through a Facebook post by a friend, Jacob Faniyi, which told the story of Dr Sapara’s infiltration of the Sopona cult.

The Cult of Sopona: Smallpox as a Weapon of Fear in West Africa

Sopona, also called Shapona or Babalu-Aye, was the Orisha (deity) of smallpox in Yoruba religion. In Nigeria, I became intimately acquainted with the Orishas of Ile Ife, a small religious centre in Nigeria, on par with Rome, Mecca and Jerusalem in its religious importance. I visited this town and when my fiance visits me in Nigeria, it will be one of the first places I will take her to. Unlike other gods associated with health and healing, that I became familiar with in OIfe, Sopona was feared rather than worshipped with affection. He was believed to have the power to inflict and cure smallpox, making his priests some of the most powerful and terrifying figures in Yoruba society.

The Sopona cult controlled public health by positioning themselves as the only ones capable of preventing outbreaks. They claimed that smallpox was not just an illness. It was a curse from Sopona, inflicted as divine punishment. People were made to believe that disobeying the priests, failing to pay tributes, or refusing to perform certain rituals could result in a personal or community-wide smallpox outbreak. This kept the population in constant fear, ensuring that the priests remained in power.

The Babalawos (priests of Sopona) had an advanced understanding of disease transmission for their time. Unlike most traditional societies, they recognised that smallpox was contagious and could be deliberately spread.

They used this knowledge as a weapon, ensuring that their authority was maintained through biological terror. The cult spread smallpox by smearing fluid from smallpox sores onto their enemies. This ensured that those who challenged their power were infected.

They would contaminate objects such as mats, drinking cups, and door handles. People would then unknowingly infect themselves when they touched these items. They would also prescribe powders and amulets laced with smallpox material. These were given as “protective charms,” but they were actually disease vectors. This made opposing the cult extremely dangerous. If someone questioned their power, they would mysteriously fall ill, reinforcing the belief that Sopona was real and that his priests had direct access to his wrath.

Dr. Oguntola Sapara (1861–1935) was a Nigerian physician trained in England and Scotland. Born in Abeokuta to a family of freed slaves, Sapara grew up in Lagos, where he received his early education at Wesleyan Boys’ High School. Recognized for his academic excellence, he earned a scholarship from the British colonial authorities, enabling him to study medicine in the United Kingdom. He pursued his medical training at the University of Edinburgh, one of the most prestigious medical schools of the time, and also studied in London, gaining extensive knowledge in Western medical practices before returning to Nigeria.

Upon his return, Sapara became a pioneering figure in Nigeria’s medical field, joining the colonial medical service and working to improve public health. He is particularly known for his campaign against harmful traditional practices, including the secretive rituals of the Ogboni society, which he infiltrated to expose and reform their dangerous health-related customs. His advocacy extended to improving sanitary conditions, combating infectious diseases, and promoting modern medical practices in colonial Nigeria. As one of the first Western-trained Nigerian doctors, Sapara played a crucial role in shaping the medical profession in the country, leaving a lasting legacy in public health and medical education.

By the time he returned to Nigeria in 1896, smallpox was devastating Yoruba communities, and he suspected that the Sopona cult was behind many of the outbreaks. The cult in question was the Ogboni society. In colonial Nigeria, they had connections to smallpox, particularly through their involvement in traditional religious practices and healing rituals. This society was a secretive Yoruba fraternal group, traditionally involved in governance, justice, and spiritual matters. They held significant influence over religious and political affairs, and some of their members acted as custodians of traditional medicine, including smallpox-related rituals.

He knew that as long as the priests controlled the disease, vaccinations would fail because people believed only the priests could cure them.

To expose the cult, Sapara took one of the greatest risks imaginable he went undercover. Sapara disguised himself as a loyal follower of the cult. He pretended to accept the priests’ teachings and gained access to their secret ceremonies. He observed their methods firsthand and saw how they deliberately spread smallpox through infected materials. He carefully documented how the cult controlled outbreaks and ensured that only those who paid tribute were “cured.” Once he had enough proof, he reported his findings to the British colonial authorities, convincing them that smallpox was being artificially spread.

In 1907, based on Sapara’s findings, the British banned the public worship of Sopona. This was a major turning point since without the ability to control the disease, the priests lost much of their influence.

Although the cult continued in secret for some time, the British aggressively promoted vaccination campaigns, making smallpox far less deadly. By the mid-20th century, the Sopona cult had nearly disappeared, and smallpox was eradicated from Nigeria through vaccination.

Sapara’s work paved the way for the eventual global eradication of smallpox in 1980.

Bowood, Calne, and the Bacon Connection: How Science and Meat Curing Intersect

While Sapara was fighting a battle against deliberate smallpox infection in Nigeria, a different battle was happening in Wiltshire, England namely the battle to preserve food safely and efficiently which I have written extensively about in my book on the history of bacon curing, Bacon & the Art of Living.

Bowood Estate is central to the story of bacon curing and the town of Calne that was established on the Bowood land. Bowood was, however, not just another English country house. In the 1770s, it became a hub of scientific innovation. Here, Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen in 1774, forever changing the world’s understanding of chemistry. Jan Ingenhousz, who had inoculated the Austrian royal family, later conducted his photosynthesis experiments at Bowood, proving that plants released oxygen in sunlight. This connection between disease prevention, oxygen, and scientific advancement made Bowood one of the most important scientific sites in 18th-century England.

Calne, the town built around Bowood Estate, would become famous for a completely different reason namely bacon curing. In the late 18th century, the curing industry took off, and by the 19th century, the famous company T & C Harris had been established on High Street, Calne. They pioneered Wiltshire curing, the method that would become the gold standard for British bacon production.

Interestingly, now, more than 100 years later, my wife-to-be and I would be involved in research from Austria to develop a progression on the Wiltshire curing method. It all feels very connected!

The Strange Parallels Between Smallpox and Meat Curing

Just as scientists were learning how to stop the spread of smallpox, they were also learning how to prevent meat from spoiling. The two processes share surprising similarities:

1. Both involved bacterial control. While scientists fought smallpox with vaccination, meat curers fought botulism and spoilage with salt and nitrates.
2. Both required public trust. Just as people feared vaccines, early consumers worried that cured meats might be unsafe.
3. Both transformed global industries. Vaccination reshaped public health, while meat curing revolutionised food storage and trade.

This link between Bowood, Calne, vaccination, and curing techniques is something I never imagined I would explore until my own work brought me to Lagos, Nigeria and Nigeria opened the possibility to pursue a relationship with a lady from Austria based on our shared interest in ancient curing techniques.

Through my engagement with an Austrian lady, I became deeply interested in the history of Austrian science and their Royal Family. Their support for vaccination, which set a precedent for public health policy, stood in sharp contrast to the excesses often associated with royalty.

As I studied Austria’s scientific traditions, I saw direct parallels between what was happening in Europe and what had happened in West Africa. My work in Lagos, Nigeria, of setting up a meat curing operation directly brought me into contact with the story of Dr Oguntola Sapara.

I was struck by the similarities between:

• The early struggles of vaccination in England and Austria
• The Sopona cult’s resistance to vaccination in Nigeria
• The parallel scientific advancements happening in Bowood and West Africa
• The link between meat curing and disease prevention

It became clear that curing smallpox and curing bacon shared deeper connections than I had ever realised.

Conclusion

From the milkmaids of England to the cults of Nigeria, the battle against smallpox has been shaped by both scientific discovery and human conflict.

• Jenner discovered vaccination through milkmaids.
• Onesimus brought African knowledge of inoculation to America.
• Ingenhousz spread inoculation and worked at Bowood, home to both curing and medical history.
• Maria Theresa embraced science and set a precedent for public health in Austria.
• Dr Oguntola Sapara infiltrated a deadly cult to stop smallpox’s deliberate spread.

In my observations about the links of history, I omitted the fact that Austria itself may be the origin of the European tradition of meat curing which I have dealt with extensively in other places. That is why, while working in Lagos, Nigeria, on a curing operation, I find myself linked to a story that spans centuries and continents, from Bowood to Lagos, from England to Austria and West Africa, from bacon curing to disease curing, from smallpox to the rituals of Sopona.

This is a story of science, resistance, the unbreakable link between food and health, and remarkable people!

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