3 Feb 24
Eben van Tonder

Introduction

The universal consensus seems to be that salt has been important to all societies around the globe. One of the greatest discoveries of my life has been that this is not true. Humans, for example, do not crave salt when we are salt-deficient. At least not the humans of today. I explored these aspects along with the most ancient source of salt, the meat we consumed in “The Salt in Meat.”

Like many other cultural innovations such as the use of fire, it had to become part of human culture and its widespread use and consumption, the propagation of the technology developed with the spread of large cultural influences around the globe.

It took me many years to validate what I have been told by Dr Xander Antonites from the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology at the University of Pretoria that salt, either a preservative or a condiment was not widely used by southern African indigenous people. As I travelled abroad, I discovered that salt was, for example not as widely used as a preservative. I found, for example, in Nepal no tradition of salt being used when they dry their meat. Not in antiquity and not today. In New Zealand there existed no salt works despite the earliest inhabitants being Polynesian with an in-depth understanding of salt and salt production. They understood salt and still decided not to use it as is evident from their practice of “desalting” food they get from the sea using fresh water. Some indigenous people in South Africa referred to Europeans as people who consume salted meat. The blanket claim that salt was universally used to preserve food and consumed as a condiment is simply not true.

This made me wonder as to the origin of the salt culture in Europe. Evidently, a salt culture existed in China and North America since antiquity and in these regions one finds lots of meat dishes predicated on the use of salt where such traditions naturally do not exist in regions like Africa. In West Africa, I found meat preservation and drying not based on salt, but on the use of fibres and the cooking and deep frying of meat or sun drying. (Deep Frying Meat: Elements of a Comprehensive Food Safety and Nutritional Debate in Ancient West Africa; Suya Sensation: Unlocking the Secrets of West Africa’s Ultimate Street Food; The Nutty’ness of African Meat Curing)

I always knew that the centre of meat meat-curing universe would be the lands of Central Europe. A few weeks ago, I was contacted by Christa Berger, an Austrian student of history and local culture about the link between Hallstatt and the Turpan region in West China which I have done a lot of work on. (see From Sea to Deserts -> Sal Ammoniac Predating Saltpetre and Ammonia from Urine and Horse Sweat-> An Ancient Pathway to Curing, two chapters from my book on the history of bacon). Her emails to me placed Hallstatt front and central in my mind and as I looked at the evidence, I realised that I was staring at the reason for the salted meat tradition of Europe and England. It is intimately linked with the Caltic Hatlstatt culture and its spread from Austria across Europe (east and west) and into England.

The Hallstatt culture, flourishing between 1200 and 500 BCE, stands as a testament to the early Iron Age’s ingenuity, marking the dawn of sophisticated metallurgy and meat preservation techniques in Europe. This civilization’s contributions have etched an indelible mark on the continent’s culinary history, intertwining the evolution of salt curing with the expansion of Celtic culture across Europe. Intriguingly, this narrative extends its roots to the Turpan region in Western China, known for its natural deposits of sal ammoniac and saltpetre, thus weaving a tale of ancient globalization.

Timeline of Technological

-> Early Hallstatt (c. 1200–800 BCE) The genesis of ironworking, coupled with the advent of salt curing techniques, set the stage for a burgeoning economic and social structure within the Hallstatt culture.

-> Hallstatt C (800–600 BCE) The proliferation of Hallstatt’s influence was marked by its advanced metallurgy and the widespread adoption of salt curing techniques, facilitated by a growing network of trade routes.

-> Hallstatt D (600–500 BCE) This period signifies the zenith of Hallstatt’s cultural and technological achievements, with its extensive trade networks reaching from the British Isles to the heart of Europe and beyond, disseminating its culinary practices across the continent.

A Cultural and Culinary Expansion

-> Large Curing Baths

Large curing baths have been discovered at Hallstatt, where 200 pork carcasses could be cured at any one time in every bath. It is the largest of its kind ever discovered from antiquity and was my first clue that something very special was happening here. Salt curing was undoubtedly known from much earlier, but here we have evidence of the industrialisation of meat curing at a level that was only duplicated during the Industrial Revolution. It was this level of technological focus that I have been looking for that would point to a particular civilisation responsible for the propagators of the salting of meat on a vast scale across Europe and into England.

The curing baths were likely constructed in the Iron Age, specifically within the 600-500 BCE timeframe. These baths indicate an advanced understanding of food preservation techniques, crucial for survival and prosperity in prehistoric times. The ability to cure and preserve meat, particularly pork, would have not only provided a reliable food source during harsh winters but also facilitated trade, as preserved meats could be transported over long distances.

The use of salt, abundant in the region due to its natural salt mines, was instrumental in the curing process. This not only highlights the Hallstatt Celts’ culinary sophistication but also underscores the economic importance of salt in that culture. The fact that salt was a valuable commodity that fostered trade relationships and contributed to the wealth and influence of the Hallstatt community is interesting. On the one hand, they had the salt mines and the technology to extract it and on the other hand, they had the technology to use it on an industrial scale. It would be wrong to say that the Celtic community became as influential as they did because of the salt just as it would be incorrect to say that salt became important in European culture because of its Celtic roots. I see an interplay here where there is a back-and-forth influencing relationship. The clear evidence from Africa, New Zealand and Nepal is that salt does not have to be as important as it became in the centric civilisation of Hallstatt. It became important because humans designed and willed its importance! This by itself is a remarkable perspective!

-> The Hallstatt Culture: A Prelude to Celtic Expansion

The Hallstatt culture, named after the eponymous site in Austria, where these significant discoveries were made, marks a defining era in European prehistory. Spanning from around 800 to 475 BCE, this period is characterized by the early adoption of iron tools and weapons, the emergence of elite social structures, and the development of extensive trade networks. The Hallstatt society was organized around tribal communities, with a social hierarchy that became increasingly pronounced, as evidenced by the opulent grave goods found in burial sites.

-> The Celts and Their Languages

The Celts, a diverse group of Indo-European tribes sharing linguistic and cultural similarities, emerged from the Hallstatt culture’s foundations. Their languages, categorized into Goidelic (Gaelic) and Brythonic (Brittonic) groups, have survived through millennia, bearing testimony to the Celts’ enduring legacy. The spread of Celtic languages and culture was facilitated by migrations and expansions across Western Europe, establishing Celtic-speaking communities from the British Isles to the Iberian Peninsula and beyond.

-> Evidence of Spread and Influence

The archaeological evidence from Hallstatt and other sites across Europe illustrates the extensive reach and influence of the Celtic people. Material culture, such as pottery, tools, and weapons, alongside the opulent burial sites, reflects a complex society with widespread trade networks. The curing baths, in particular, symbolize the technological and economic advancements that underpinned Celtic expansion.

The transition from the Hallstatt to the La Tène culture marked the continuation of Celtic cultural dominance in Europe, leading to further developments in art, social structure, and technology. The Celts’ legacy, manifested in languages, mythology, and artistic traditions, continues to captivate and influence to this day.

The Enduring Legacy of Hallstatt’s Culinary Innovations

Hallstatt’s legacy is characterized by its pioneering advancements in salt and iron production, which not only fueled its economic expansion but also facilitated the spread of meat-curing techniques across Europe. The addition of the Turpan connection enriches our understanding of ancient trade and cultural exchange, showcasing the significant role of salt in food preservation and flavouring, a tradition that starkly contrasts with the preservation techniques found in Africa.

Conclusion

The more I look at the evidence, the more I am convinced that the Hallstatt-Celtic influence is the reason why salted meat became the European and English culinary signature just as it was a particular society in China that had the same impact in that part of the world. A fascinating link with the Turpan region and the nitrite curing of meat will be the next chapter in this fascinating and unfolding journey of discovery!

References

1. Kristiansen, K., & Larsson, T. B. (2005). *The Rise of Bronze Age Society: Travels, Transmissions and Transformations*. Cambridge University Press.

2. Cunliffe, B. (1997). *The Ancient Celts*. Oxford University Press.

3. Anthony, D. W. (2007). *The Horse, The Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World*. Princeton University Press.

4. Aldhouse-Green, M. (1995). *The Celtic World*. Routledge.

5. Wells, P. S. (1999). *The Barbarians Speak: How the Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe*. Princeton University Press.

6. Bradley, R. (2007). *The Prehistory of Britain and Ireland*. Cambridge University Press.

7. Archaeological Reports from the Hallstatt Salt Mines. Austrian Archaeological Institute.

8. Barker, G., & Rasmussen, T. (1998). *The Etruscans*. Blackwell Publishers.

9. EarthwormExpress. (n.d.). *Exploring the Connection: Hallstatt, Salzburg, and Turpan*. An examination of the link between European and Asian salt production and meat curing practices.