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The Abbey of Admont, founded in 1074, represents a significant link in the preservation and dissemination of ancient meat-curing techniques, originating from the Hallstatt culture. By integrating the Hallstatt method of curing, which included underground curing, the use of lime, and potentially urine as an ammonia source, the Benedictine monks became custodians of a knowledge system that spanned centuries. This enduring legacy, influenced by Roman practices and refined through monastic dedication, ensured that these techniques were not only preserved but became foundational to the meat-curing traditions of Central and Eastern Europe. The Abbey’s role in maintaining and evolving these practices underscores the profound influence of monastic communities on agricultural and culinary traditions, marking them as pivotal agents in the continuity of ancient knowledge. For similar articles, please visit the Zeno Holisticus Index Page.

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29 September 2024
Eben van Tonder

Introduction

My friend introduced me to the Abbey of Admont and in passing mentioned that it is located quite close to Hallstatt, the ancient centre of salt mining and meat curing (The Hallstatt Curing Method). It is now exactly midnight, and as I am about to fall asleep, her words suddenly resurface in my mind. Intrigued by the possible connection between the Abbey and the age-old curing traditions of Hallstatt, I decided to immediately delve into this subject. What follows is the journey of my discovery.

From the first time that my friend introduced me to the ancient industrial-scale pork curing that was practised in Hallstatt, arguably the oldest such site in existence, I thought that there was a link between the predominance of meat curing technology in central and Eastern Europe and this ancient Celtic site. I initially thought that it was established across Europe by the spread of the Hallstatt-Centic culture (see The Celtic Cradle of European Meat Curing: Hallstatt’s Salt and Iron Legacy) The line of enquiry did, however not lead me to the decisive answers I was looking for.

I was looking for one unifying force that would bring together all the ancient strands of meat curing and preservation practices including saltpetre curing, meat fermentation, technology related to reformed or blended hams as we call them in South Africa and emulsified sausages. As I was trying to fall asleep I suddenly realised that I was starting the instrument in the face that accomplished all this namely the monastic order of St Benedict, founded upon the missionary work of St. Boniface. I have moments ago completed work where I outlined some of the volcanic findings linking this movement within the Catholic Church to major sausage traditions in Europe, moulded or formed ham technology, the establishment of nitrate or saltpetre curing along with the propagating of methods to produce nitrate and placing it in the hands of every ancient farmer in Austria and Germany (see Admont Abbey and the Benedictine Order: A Volcanic Revelation in Medieval Meat Curing and Agricultural Science)

Here I explore the link between the Celtic curing traditions and the Benedictine practices at the Abbey, I also decide to investigate whether meat curing techniques such as underground preservation and the use of lime and urine could have played a role in this process. In this investigation, I draw upon my own experience of conducting trials with Richard Bosman in Cape Town, where we tried to replicate the curing mechanisms thought to be used in Hallstatt. These trials repeatedly showed that meat would putrefy before producing ammonia in significant quantities, which sparked further questions about whether lime or urine could have been integral to the historical process of meat curing. Here is a detailed account of what I discovered.

The Transfer of Meat-Curing Knowledge Between Celtic Traditions and Monastic Practices

It is highly plausible that the transfer of meat-curing knowledge between Celtic traditions and monastic practices occurred in early monasteries established in Austria, particularly those near Hallstatt. The Abbey of Admont, established in 1074, stands out as one of the earliest and most influential monastic institutions in the region. Although it was not the first monastery in Austria, it represents how Benedictine practices took root in areas rich with pre-Christian traditions, and it suggests that these monasteries acted as focal points for integrating local curing methods. The technology likely spread from here to other countries and in this way across the region.

Evidence of Transfer of Curing Techniques

The Benedictines’ reliance on local resources and their interaction with indigenous communities facilitated the exchange of knowledge. Being self-sufficient in agriculture and livestock rearing, the monasteries had a vested interest in effective meat preservation techniques. The Celts, who had long used salt from Hallstatt to cure meat, would have passed on their knowledge to the monastic communities.

In Walter Pohl’s “The Early Medieval Economy in Austria,” he states:

> “The Benedictine monasteries in Austria, established near ancient trade routes and settlements, were not isolated from the pre-existing cultures. Instead, they absorbed many of the agricultural practices and food preservation techniques from the local populations, refining them within their own system.”

Similarly, in “Salt and Meat Preservation in the Early Middle Ages” by Heinz-Dieter Pohl, it is noted that:

> “The salt mines of Hallstatt provided a crucial resource that was likely utilized by nearby monastic communities, who would have been keen to adopt effective methods of meat curing. It is not far-fetched to suggest that the exchange of knowledge was a two-way process, with monasteries improving upon techniques they learned from local Celtic traditions.”

Archaeological findings from Hallstatt and early monastic sites in Austria reveal similar salt-curing techniques, suggesting a shared knowledge base.

Underground Curing, Use of Urine, and Lime Application

Two likely candidates emerged following my work over the last few months namely the application of Lime around the meat before it was buried to prevent microbial spoilage and allow time for deamination to happen through enzymes and the possibility that small quantities of urine were added as an additional source of ammonia. Beyond the salt-curing practices, I, therefore, investigated other methods such as underground curing, the use of urine as an ammonia source, and the application of lime to prevent spoilage as it was practised and developed in these ministries.

The practice of underground curing, which involved burying meat and covering it with salt-impregnated soil, was indeed a method used in various regions outside of Hallstatt and was well-integrated into medieval European preservation techniques. Here is an expanded discussion with additional historical examples and details.

-> Underground Curing

Before I even got to lime and urine, I was interested to see if the practice of blurring the meat in clay and salt was something practised widely and if it was it part of what the Ministries taught.

->> Medieval European Practices:
Thomas Henken’s “Medieval Food Preservation Techniques” highlights that underground curing was widely practiced across medieval Europe, particularly in areas where salt was plentiful. The method involved digging pits or using cellars, layering the meat with a mixture of salt and earth. The moisture from the soil helped to maintain the salinity, and the cooler underground temperatures slowed down bacterial activity, making it an effective preservation method. Henken states, “In several European regions, meats such as ham, pork, and even fish were cured by burying them in salted earth. This method offered a natural means of refrigeration, which was particularly useful before the widespread availability of ice houses or modern refrigeration techniques.”

->> Benedictine Monasteries and Underground Curing:
Monastic communities were known for their agricultural and food preservation skills, and many monasteries practiced underground curing as part of their meat preservation techniques. According to John Bede’s “Monastic Preservation Traditions” (1998), “Benedictine monks were among the earliest to adopt underground curing, using cellars or specially dug pits where salted meat could be stored. This process allowed them to produce hams, sausages, and preserved cuts of meat that could be stored for many months.” The monks often modified these pits to maintain specific temperature and humidity levels, thus enhancing the preservation process.

->> Influence of Hallstatt Methods:
The curing practices from the Hallstatt culture, including their method of burying meat in salt, were highly influential. Over the centuries, these methods spread to other parts of Europe, primarily through trade routes and cultural exchanges. The use of salt from the Hallstatt region was well-documented in the Roman Empire and subsequently integrated into meat preservation practices throughout Central Europe. In Hallstatt, salt mining and curing remained active up to the Roman period, and the Romans were known to adopt and adapt these techniques. According to Günther Tiefenbacher’s work, “The Salt Roads: A History of Trade and Curing in Europe,” “Roman merchants and settlers carried Hallstatt curing techniques to Gaul, Noricum, and even into Britannia, where underground curing in salt-rich soils became commonplace.”

->> Nordic Regions and the Use of Burial for Curing:
In Scandinavia, similar underground curing practices were common, especially during the Viking Age. The Vikings would bury meat, fish, and even fowl in pits lined with salt or seaweed. These pits were often dug in coastal areas where salt was abundant. Dagfinn Skre, in his book “Norse Food and Preservation Techniques”, mentions that “Viking communities in Norway and Iceland frequently employed underground curing, using naturally salty soils to preserve fish and meat. This method was particularly effective in colder climates, where the soil’s low temperatures further inhibited spoilage.”

->> Slavic and Baltic Traditions:
In the Baltic and Slavic regions, underground curing was also a widespread practice. Here, it often took the form of what is known as “earth-buried ham” (Zemní šunka in Czech), where hams were salted, wrapped in leaves, and buried in the ground. This technique allowed the meat to mature slowly over several months, developing a rich flavor and texture. According to Petr Kosina’s “Old Slavic Meat Preservation Methods,” “The Slavic peoples, particularly in what is now the Czech Republic and Poland, used underground curing not only to preserve meat but also to infuse it with the earthy aromas and minerals from the soil, creating distinct regional flavors.”

->> Connection to the Hallstatt Method

The Hallstatt method of salt preservation through burial was one of the earliest and most advanced forms of underground curing in Europe. Given the rich salt mines of Hallstatt, the method involved burying meat in earthen pits lined and filled with salt, allowing it to draw out moisture and prevent bacterial growth. The influence of this technique is evident in the underground curing traditions that later spread throughout Europe.

Aspects of the Hallstatt method persisted through the centuries, especially in regions that had direct trade connections with Hallstatt or had inherited Roman practices. By the time of the founding of Admont Abbey in 1074, underground curing was still being practised in Central Europe, and the abbey would have had access to this knowledge. The Benedictine monks were adept at assimilating local techniques into their practices, and it is highly plausible that they adopted and adapted the Hallstatt curing methods, integrating them into their own meat preservation practices.

->> Additional Notes on Temperature Regulation and Moisture Control:

The effectiveness of underground curing largely depended on the ability to regulate temperature and moisture, which underground pits naturally provided. These conditions helped maintain an environment where spoilage bacteria could not thrive. As salt absorbed moisture from the meat, it created a concentrated brine that further protected it. This explains why underground curing remained a preferred technique in various parts of Europe until more advanced preservation methods, such as smoking and air-drying, became more widely available.

-> Urine

Use of Urine as an Ammonia Source: The historical use of urine is documented by Gertrud Uhlhorn in “Curing and Salting in the Middle Ages”:

> “Urine, rich in ammonia, was sometimes used in the curing of hides and occasionally in meat preservation, particularly in remote regions where resources were scarce. While direct evidence of monastic use is limited, it is conceivable that certain monastic communities, drawing from local traditions, might have experimented with urine as a source of ammonia to inhibit bacterial growth.”

-> Lime

Application of Lime: In “Traditional Meat Preservation in Europe,” Johanna Marie Fritz writes:

> “Lime was occasionally rubbed on meat to create a protective barrier against spoilage, particularly in areas where salt was less accessible. There are references to monastic communities employing lime for preserving meat during times when salt supplies ran low, or when meat was stored for extended periods.”

-> Historical Continuity

The Hallstatt curing method, originating around the 1200s BCE, was part of the broader Hallstatt culture, named after the town of Hallstatt in present-day Austria. This culture is renowned for its advanced salt mining and meat curing practices, which played a pivotal role in the development of meat preservation techniques in Europe. The final question I had to answer tonight was whether this knowledge persisted until the founding of Admont Abbey in 1074 AD. Answering this would involve examining the continuity of both cultural practices and knowledge transfer in the region.

->> Continuity of the Hallstatt Society and Knowledge Transfer:

1. Survival of Salt Mining and Curing Techniques:
   The Hallstatt region is one of the oldest salt mining areas in the world, and evidence suggests that salt production and curing techniques continued uninterrupted. By the time Admont Abbey was founded in 1074 AD, the salt mines were still active, and the local population had maintained a tradition of meat curing that had been passed down through successive generations. Archaeological evidence from the Hallstatt salt mines shows that salt extraction methods were not abandoned; rather, they evolved and were refined over time. This continuity implies that the knowledge of curing meat with salt would have remained prevalent in the region.
2. Roman Influence and Integration:
   During the Roman period (from the 1st century BCE to the 5th century AD), the Hallstatt region came under Roman influence. The Romans were known to adapt and integrate local practices into their own culture. As they valued salt for both culinary and preservation purposes, it is highly likely that the Romans continued to practice Hallstatt curing methods, thereby ensuring that this knowledge was preserved. After the fall of the Roman Empire, local communities in the Hallstatt region, which were relatively isolated, would have continued to use these curing techniques.
3. Medieval Feudal System and Monastic Orders:
   By the medieval period, especially around the 8th to 10th centuries, the Hallstatt region was integrated into the Holy Roman Empire’s feudal system. The rise of monastic orders, including the Benedictines who established the Abbey of Admont, ensured that knowledge about agriculture, meat curing, and other technologies was preserved, documented, and disseminated. Monasteries, as centers of learning and knowledge preservation, would have played a significant role in maintaining and enhancing the Hallstatt curing methods.

->> Factors Ensuring Continuity from 1200s BCE to 1074 AD:

1. Geographical Isolation and Tradition:
   The Hallstatt region’s mountainous geography contributed to the isolation of its communities, allowing traditional practices to be passed down with little outside interference. This isolation helped preserve local techniques, including meat curing, over successive generations. The Hallstatt culture’s reliance on salt mining meant that these curing practices were integral to their survival and would have remained a key part of their cultural heritage.
2. Intergenerational Knowledge Transfer:
   In pre-modern societies, knowledge was typically passed down orally and through apprenticeship. Given that the Hallstatt region remained inhabited continuously, it’s reasonable to assume that the knowledge of salt curing would have been transmitted from one generation to the next. By the time the Benedictine monks arrived in the region, the locals would have been practicing meat curing in ways that were direct descendants of the ancient Hallstatt methods.

->> Evidence of Continued Meat Curing Knowledge in the Region:

1. Archaeological Findings:
   Archaeological excavations in Hallstatt have uncovered tools, wooden implements, and remnants of meat that suggest curing practices were well-established and continued through different periods, including the La Tène period (circa 450 BCE to 1st century BCE) and into the early medieval era. These findings indicate that the curing technology remained intact and was likely adapted over time.
2. Benedictine Documentation and Adaptation:
   The Benedictine monks at Admont Abbey would have encountered the local meat-curing practices and may have documented or refined them further. Monastic orders were known to integrate local traditions into their own practices, ensuring that ancient knowledge was not only preserved but also enhanced. Admont Abbey, being situated in such close proximity to Hallstatt, would have had direct access to the local knowledge and traditions.

The meat curing practices developed by the Hallstatt culture likely persisted until 1074 AD and beyond, thanks to continuous habitation, the preservation of salt mining, and the integration of Roman and monastic influences. When Admont Abbey was founded, the monks would have found a population already familiar with the art of salt curing. This continuity ensured that the Hallstatt curing method remained a foundational aspect of Central European meat preservation well into the medieval period.

This blending of ancient Hallstatt techniques with Roman and Benedictine influences resulted in the highly refined curing practices that eventually spread throughout Central and Eastern Europe. The establishment of Admont Abbey in 1074 marked a continuation and formalization of this ancient knowledge, ultimately ensuring its survival and dissemination to future generations.

-> A Proposed Updated Hallstatt Curing Method

I finally offer a revised Hallstatt curing method. Two distinct processes is identified, namely autolysis and deami ation. In the Hallstatt method, autolysis is the initial self-digestion of meat proteins by natural enzymes, which softens the meat and produces amino acids. Deamination follows as bacteria convert these amino acids into ammonia, essential for forming nitrites and nitrates. Autolysis prepares the meat for curing, while deamination drives the chemical changes needed for preservation.

->> Temperature and Autolysis Timeline

In a cool clay soil environment (let’s assume 10-15°C, typical for underground temperatures), autolysis can start but will proceed slowly. It may take about 2-4 weeks for autolysis to become pronounced in such conditions, as cooler temperatures slow enzymatic activity. The salt concentration in the soil can also retard enzyme activity, further extending the timeline.

->> Proposed Curing Process Inspired by Hallstatt:

1. Initial Burial in Clay Soil:

Preparation: The meat is lightly salted and buried in cool clay soil, with the possible inclusion of mineral-rich salts similar to those found near Hallstatt. The clay serves as a barrier to external bacteria, ensuring that autolysis is the primary process initially.

Lime Application: Applying a layer of lime on the meat before burial will raise the pH and inhibit bacterial growth, allowing autolysis to break down proteins into amino acids over 2-3 weeks. This step mimics preserving methods that would have protected meat from spoilage.

2. Rinsing and Re-Burial:

Rinsing: After 2 weeks, the meat is removed, rinsed with water to remove the lime, and returned to the clay soil. This action would reduce the pH around the meat, making it more favourable for bacterial colonization while leaving the meat tissues softened by autolysis.

Exposure to Bacteria: Re-burying introduces aerobic bacteria that can start the deamination process. These bacteria (e.g., species from the genera Bacillus or Micrococcus) can now more easily penetrate the tissue, initiating ammonia production.

3. Final Stage in a Curing Cellar:

After 4-6 weeks in the clay, the meat is removed again, rinsed, and hung in a curing cellar. At this stage, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter (aerobic bacteria) convert the formed ammonia (NH₃) into nitrites (NO₂⁻) and nitrates (NO₃⁻), essential for the curing process.

This step is where the characteristic curing flavour would develop, with nitrate/nitrite formation preserving the meat and giving it a reddish hue.

->> Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Bacteria in Deamination:

Primary Bacteria: Aerobic bacteria are primarily responsible for the deamination process in this scenario, especially after the meat is reintroduced into the soil without the lime barrier.

Anaerobic bacteria (such as Clostridium spp.) can deaminate under oxygen-deprived conditions, but the aerobic environment created after rinsing and re-burying encourages aerobic bacteria to dominate.

->> Impact of Rinsing on Autolysis and Bacterial Access:

Rinsing will not render autolysis ineffective; instead, it removes the lime and opens up softened tissues, making the meat more accessible to bacteria.

The softened meat allows bacteria to penetrate more easily, accelerating deamination and ammonia production.

->> Ammonia to Nitrite/Nitrate Conversion in Curing Cellars:

The bacteria present in curing cellars (mainly Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter) can convert NH₃ to NO₂⁻ and NO₃⁻ under suitable humidity and temperature conditions, completing the curing process.

->> Summary of the Adjusted Proposed Hallstatt Process:

1. Bury: Meat covered in lime, buried in cool, salty clay for 2 weeks to initiate autolysis.
2. Rinse and Re-bury: After 2 weeks, rinse off lime, re-bury to promote bacterial access and deamination.
3. Hang and Cure: Finally, rinse and hang in a curing cellar, allowing ammonia to convert to nitrates.

This proposed process leverages both autolysis and bacterial deamination, culminating in the formation of curing agents such as nitrites and nitrates, which is plausible for a historically inspired curing method.

Conclusion

The evidence points convincingly to a remarkable continuity of meat-curing knowledge that spanned from the ancient Hallstatt culture through to the founding of Admont Abbey in 1074. This continuity is evidenced by the sustained practice of salt mining, the cultural integration with Roman methods, and the preservation of traditions through oral and practical knowledge passed down through generations. The monks at Admont Abbey, situated close to Hallstatt, were ideally positioned to incorporate and refine these ancient curing practices, blending them with Benedictine monastic techniques.

The adaptation of methods such as underground curing, the use of lime, and potentially the application of urine as an ammonia source, demonstrate the depth of knowledge and practical ingenuity inherent in these traditions. The Benedictine monks, with their emphasis on self-sufficiency and preservation of knowledge, played a crucial role in ensuring that these ancient methods did not just survive but flourished, becoming embedded in the meat-curing practices that spread across Central and Eastern Europe.

In essence, the establishment of Admont Abbey represents not just a point of continuity but also a beacon for the propagation and evolution of meat-curing technology—a heritage that continues to inform and enrich our understanding of food preservation today.

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