18 October 24
Eben van Tonder

Introduction

The question of why salt-cured meat became such a prominent method across Europe led me to explore the deeper origins of this practice. Initially, I thought the answer lay in the Celtic Hallstatt culture, which had a sophisticated understanding of salt mining and preservation techniques. However, as I traced the spread of this tradition through Europe, I noticed that the methods used in meat curing were too consistent, even in regions far removed from Hallstatt’s influence. There was no clear connection that could explain such uniformity solely through Celtic culture.

Over the past few months, I came to a profound realization: the spread of meat preservation techniques, particularly the use of salt curing, was likely driven by the monastic orders that acted as the custodians of agricultural knowledge throughout the Middle Ages. These monastic communities preserved and disseminated not only religious teachings but also critical agricultural and culinary traditions. From the monasteries of Ireland and England to those in continental Europe, they maintained a remarkably disciplined and organized approach to food production, of which meat curing was a key component.

But even this left me with another question—who was the driving force behind such a unified and far-reaching system? A compelling conclusion presented itself in Charlemagne or Charles the Great (Latin: Carolus Magnus; German: Karl der Große), who played a central role in orchestrating agricultural and spiritual transformation and the establishment of European culture. His far-sighted vision for a unified Christian Europe didn’t just concern religion; it extended to agricultural reforms and food technologies. The consistency in meat curing across Europe is a testament to his system of Christianization, which not only unified religious practices but also aligned agricultural methods.

In this article, I introduce you to the man, his collaborators and the highly effective system that underpinned this cultural and agricultural revolution, and I provide an example from less than 200 meters from where I am writing this, which stands as a testament to the enduring legacy of this remarkable era.

Charlemagne achieved remarkable success in the Christianization of Europe because he utilized a remarkable system. While he did not invent any of its components, it is clear that he recognized the immense power of the integrated system and was deeply committed to its proper implementation. He aligned himself with individuals who could transform and refine various aspects of the system, leading to significant overall improvements.

The remaining feature of his system we will not consider is his “Christianize or be executed” policy. Known as the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae (the Capitulation on the Saxon Territories), was a harsh measure implemented during his campaigns to subjugate the pagan Saxons. It mandated conversion to Christianity under the threat of death, particularly for those who refused baptism or reverted to pagan practices. This policy reflected Charlemagne’s goal of consolidating power by enforcing religious unity, but it also led to significant resistance and violent uprisings among the Saxons, prolonging the conflict for decades. We will not lose sight of this reality, but my interest is focused on the cultural practices he established that last till the present day.

The Man

The Western Roman Empire officially fell in 476 AD, but the decline had been ongoing for centuries. Internally, the empire struggled with political instability, economic decline, and military corruption, while externally, barbarian invasions intensified. The empire suffered its first major blow when the Visigoths sacked Rome in 410 AD, followed by invasions from the Vandals in 455 AD, and other Germanic tribes like the Ostrogoths. The final collapse occurred when Odoacer, a Germanic chieftain, deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, on September 4, 476 AD.

After the fall of Rome, the Frankish Kingdom gradually rose to power under leaders like Clovis I, who united the Frankish tribes by 509 AD and established a strong Christian kingdom. In 751 AD, Pepin the Short, with the support of the Pope, overthrew the last Merovingian king and founded the Carolingian Dynasty, laying the groundwork for a new era of political and religious consolidation in Europe.

Charlemagne, also known as Charles the Great, grew up in a royal Frankish family with a legacy rooted in military conquest and political power. He was born in 747 to Pepin the Short, the first Carolingian King, and Bertrada of Laon. His early life was shaped by his father’s reign and the emerging power struggles within the Frankish territories. Charlemagne was deeply influenced by his father’s consolidation of power and the Church’s role in legitimizing political authority.

Charlemagne was not formally educated in a structured academic sense, but he received a rigorous and practical education focused on governance, military strategy, and diplomacy. He was also an avid learner throughout his life, with a keen interest in the liberal arts, particularly classical literature, theology, and law. His efforts to self-educate and foster learning were central to what became known as the Carolingian Renaissance, a revival of learning and culture across his empire.

The influence of Rome on Charlemagne was profound. His political aspirations were shaped by the idea of reviving the glory of the Roman Empire, which was manifested when Pope Leo III crowned him “Holy Roman Emperor” in 800 AD. This connection to Rome imbued Charlemagne with a sense of duty to restore order and Christianize Europe under his rule, blending Roman legal traditions with Christian ideals. His disciplined nature and strong administrative abilities can be attributed to his early exposure to the military and legal responsibilities of his father’s court and his desire to emulate Roman ideals of governance.

Charlemagne’s discipline also stemmed from his deep commitment to order and structure in both the spiritual and temporal realms. He believed that through discipline and proper governance, his empire could achieve not only political stability but also moral regeneration. His Christianization efforts were intertwined with this disciplined approach, as he sought to create a unified Christian society that was as orderly as it was devout.

Charlemagne’s system of Christianization was strategic and deliberate, focusing on three key elements: monasteries, pilgrimage, and basilicas. Monasteries served as centres of learning and moral instruction, pilgrimage routes unified distant regions through shared spiritual journeys, and basilicas acted as both religious and political symbols of his authority. Each of these elements incorporated the social, political, and spiritual reforms necessary to achieve his vision for a unified and Christianized society. In this system, the integration of religion with governance ensured that Charlemagne’s legacy would endure not just in his lifetime, but for centuries to come.

The Strategy

The Contributors to Charlemagne’s Vision

A leader is nothing without the people who help build his vision, and Charlemagne was no exception. He surrounded himself with key figures who contributed uniquely to the success of his grand system for spreading Christianity and establishing political order. These men were drawn both from his father’s reign and from outside Frankish territories, as Charlemagne actively sought out individuals whose talents aligned with his goals.

Charlemagne inherited some advisors and administrators from the reign of his father, Pepin the Short, but he also brought in new figures who expanded his vision. For instance, Alcuin of York, an Anglo-Saxon scholar, was one of the most important intellectuals of the time and became a trusted advisor to Charlemagne.

Benedict of Aniane and Alcuin of York were two of the most influential figures in Charlemagne’s inner circle, each bringing unique backgrounds and expertise that helped shape the Carolingian Empire.

Benedict of Aniane came from a noble Visigothic family in the region of Septimania (modern-day southern France). Originally a court official under King Pepin, he later embraced monastic life, becoming an advocate for reforming and standardizing monastic practices. His reforms were inspired by the Rule of St. Benedict, and he worked to bring all monasteries under this rule, ensuring that monastic communities adhered to uniform religious and cultural practices.

Charlemagne brought Benedict into his fold to ensure that monasteries would be both spiritual and political tools for unifying the empire. Benedict’s reforms spread throughout the Carolingian Empire and beyond, strengthening the church’s influence and contributing to the Christianization of Europe.

Alcuin of York, on the other hand, came from Northumbria in Anglo-Saxon England. He was educated at the Cathedral School of York, a leading center of learning at the time. Alcuin’s intellectual brilliance and dedication to the liberal arts attracted Charlemagne’s attention, and he was invited to join the court in Aachen around 781 AD. There, Alcuin led the Palace School, where he became instrumental in shaping the intellectual and cultural direction of Charlemagne’s reign. His efforts in standardizing religious texts, developing educational reforms, and promoting the Carolingian Renaissance solidified his role as one of Charlemagne’s most trusted advisors.

These men were not native to the Frankish heartland, but Charlemagne’s ability to identify and recruit talent from outside his territories speaks to his broad vision and strategic acumen. Benedict’s monastic reforms and Alcuin’s intellectual contributions were integral to Charlemagne’s system of Christianization, where monasteries, pilgrimage, and basilicas became the foundation for spreading Christian doctrine and political control across Europe. Together, they ensured that every aspect of the system—spiritual, educational, and cultural—worked toward the unification of society under Charlemagne’s Christian empire.

Pope Leo III was another key ally. Their relationship was mutually beneficial: Leo needed Charlemagne’s protection, while Charlemagne needed the Church’s spiritual authority to solidify his own rule. The Pope’s coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor in 800 AD was a pivotal moment, giving Charlemagne both religious legitimacy and a renewed connection to the legacy of the Roman Empire.

In addition to monasteries and pilgrimage routes, Charlemagne recognized the importance of basilicas as imposing symbols of religious and political power.

Charlemagne enlisted architects and craftsmen from across his empire, but notably, Odo of Metz was the architect behind the Palatine Chapel. Odo was inspired by classical Roman architecture but introduced innovations that reflected the Carolingian Empire’s unique aspirations.

Through the construction of such basilicas, Charlemagne ensured that his system of Christianization had a lasting and visible impact on the cultural landscape of Europe. These basilicas, placed strategically across his empire, reinforced his vision of a unified Christian world where religious authority was deeply intertwined with imperial power.

These men, along with others like Einhard, Charlemagne’s biographer, and numerous local bishops and abbots, played vital roles in executing his vision. They were not simply administrators; they were innovators who contributed to every aspect of the system—from intellectual and spiritual reform to the political and cultural renaissance that emerged under Charlemagne’s reign.

In essence, Charlemagne’s system was successful because he surrounded himself with individuals who could take his broad ideas and apply them in transformative ways. His ability to recognize talent and foster loyalty among these men was key to the enduring success of his Christianization efforts.

Charlemagne’s system was influenced by his advisors and the Church’s guidance. Each contributor played a specific role in developing and refining the tools of Christianization.

Alcuin of York, Charlemagne’s chief theological advisor, led educational reform across the empire, ensuring that monasteries became centers of learning. His efforts helped establish schools that educated clergy and laity alike, disseminating Christian knowledge throughout Charlemagne’s territories. Alcuin believed that spiritual education was essential for the long-term stability of Charlemagne’s empire, arguing in his letters that rulers had a moral duty to teach their subjects the ways of faith.

Benedict of Aniane focused on monastic reform, enforcing the Rule of St. Benedict across the empire. By consolidating monastic discipline, Benedict turned monasteries into self-sufficient centers of spiritual devotion and economic production. Monasteries under Benedict’s reforms were crucial in ensuring religious continuity across the newly Christianized territories, aligning with Charlemagne’s broader political goals.

Pope Leo III, in turn, provided spiritual legitimacy to Charlemagne’s reign. The Pope’s endorsement of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE cemented the partnership between political power and spiritual authority. Leo III’s influence helped organize the construction of pilgrimage routes, basilicas, and other religious infrastructure that reinforced the Church’s hold over the newly converted regions.

Continuity of Roman Tradition and Pagan Practices

Before Charlemagne’s reign, religious gatherings often took place in domus ecclesiae, or house churches, and smaller local churches. These were modest, informal places where Christian communities met, particularly in rural areas or before Christianity became dominant. Civic and community meetings were generally held in public buildings or town halls, often repurposed from Roman-era constructions like basilicas, which were used as secular gathering places, particularly for legal and administrative purposes.

Charlemagne changed this dynamic significantly by repurposing basilicas, originally Roman structures used for public meetings and legal courts, into grand Christian churches that served both spiritual and civic functions. Under his rule, basilicas became central to the religious life of the community while also continuing to serve as places for communal governance and decision-making. This transformation merged the functions of religious and civic life, making the basilica not just a church but the heart of both worship and local administration.

Charlemagne’s basilicas were not just places of worship; they continued to function as community centers in a way, where religious activities intertwined with public life. This dual role was intentional, as Charlemagne sought to ensure that Christianity was integrated into all aspects of daily life, thus reinforcing both his religious and political authority. His basilicas were larger, more imposing, and designed to serve as symbols of his empire’s strength. This architectural evolution was a clear departure from the smaller, more modest churches that had been common before his reign.

To staff these new basilicas, Charlemagne worked with the Church to ensure that priests—often trained in monasteries—were placed in charge. These priests managed the basilicas, maintaining liturgical order while also overseeing the local community’s spiritual and administrative needs. It was also during this time that relics became a more prominent feature of basilicas. The housing of relics within these grand churches drew pilgrims and made the basilicas central hubs for both religious devotion and local community interaction.

By converting these civic basilicas into religious centres and positioning them at the heart of both spiritual and community life, Charlemagne ensured that his system of Christianization had a lasting and profound impact. His influence was further reinforced as town and community meetings shifted to these basilicas, which became focal points for both religious worship and political governance, solidifying his vision of a unified Christian empire.

Roman Influence and Continuation of Practices

Charlemagne strategically erected basilicas on sites that had been important centres of pagan worship for centuries. In doing so, he was following a practice that began during the Roman Empire, particularly after Emperor Constantine’s conversion to Christianity in the 4th century. The Romans often repurposed pagan temples and sacred sites for Christian use, a method that facilitated the transition of the local population from paganism to Christianity by maintaining a sense of continuity with their traditional places of worship.

This practice actually served multiple purposes: it asserted the dominance of Christianity, utilized already sacred spaces to ease the populace into new religious practices, and often took advantage of the prime locations these sites occupied. Charlemagne adopted this approach, recognizing its effectiveness in both spiritual and political consolidation. By building basilicas on these significant sites, he harnessed their historical and cultural importance to advance his own goals of unifying his empire under Christianity.

Charlemagne’s Role and Implementation

Charlemagne’s personal involvement in his reforms was profound, particularly in the areas of monasteries, basilicas, and pilgrimage. He did not delegate these tasks entirely to others but was directly engaged in ensuring their success. His hands-on leadership helped transform the religious and political landscape of Europe.

-> Personal Role in Monastic Reforms

Charlemagne’s visits to monasteries were a key part of his strategy. These visits were not just ceremonial; they were inspections where he evaluated the spiritual and administrative efficiency of the monastic communities. For Charlemagne, monasteries were critical institutions that served multiple functions: spiritual centers, places of learning, and even administrative hubs. He worked closely with reformers like Benedict of Aniane, who standardized monastic practices across the empire. Charlemagne personally ensured that monasteries adhered to the Rule of St. Benedict, which emphasized discipline, prayer, and work. By making regular visits, he could see firsthand whether the reforms were being implemented properly.

Charlemagne was known to inspect the way of life in these religious communities. People were aware of his high standards and, naturally, his visits invoked a sense of accountability. These visits were often met with both reverence and anxiety, as the emperor’s expectations were strict. He wanted to see that monks lived in accordance with the rules he had mandated, that monasteries were well-organized, and that they contributed to the broader Christianization and intellectual development of the empire.

-> Direct Oversight of Basilica Construction

The construction of imposing basilicas was another area where Charlemagne was deeply involved. These basilicas were not only places of worship but symbols of his authority and the growing Christian empire. Charlemagne was personally invested in their design and purpose, as seen with the Palatine Chapel in Aachen, which was constructed under his direct supervision. He worked with architects like Odo of Metz, incorporating elements of Romanesque and Byzantine architecture to create structures that reflected both spiritual and imperial grandeur.

His basilicas were often built on former pagan worship sites, a deliberate act to symbolize the triumph of Christianity over paganism. Charlemagne knew the significance of these locations and personally ensured that the construction projects respected their historical importance while repurposing them for Christian worship. His basilicas were far more than just churches—they were political and cultural statements that reinforced his rule. He personally inspected these projects to ensure that they met his vision of unifying his empire under both religious and political leadership.

-> Pilgrimage as a Unifying Force

Charlemagne also played a crucial role in promoting pilgrimage. He recognized that pilgrimage routes could be powerful tools for unifying his vast empire under a shared Christian identity. Basilicas housing relics of saints became destinations for pilgrims, further embedding these sites into the religious and social fabric of his empire. Charlemagne personally endorsed these routes and took an active interest in ensuring that the infrastructure for pilgrimage was maintained. This wasn’t just about spiritual devotion—it was about connecting diverse regions under a common religious and political framework.

-> Choosing Regions for Reform

Charlemagne’s personal involvement extended to the selection of regions where his system of reforms would be applied next. He didn’t leave these decisions solely to his advisors. For example, he targeted regions like Saxony, where paganism was still strong, knowing that the Christianization of these areas would solidify his political control. His decision to focus on specific regions was often tied to both religious and strategic military objectives. He ensured that monasteries, basilicas, and pilgrimage routes were established in areas where they could have the greatest impact on consolidating his empire.

The Example

Charlemagne’s Christianization Strategy – An Applied Model in Styria, Slovenia, and Bavaria

Having looked at the method of establishing Christianity, we turn our attention to how it was applied in an actual real-life example.

-> Site Selection: Styria, Slovenia, and Bavaria

Charlemagne’s selection of Styria, Slovenia, and Bavaria for Christianization was driven by both political strategy and spiritual necessity. These regions, deeply connected to ancient pagan traditions and strategically located along critical trade routes, were vital to securing the empire’s eastern frontiers. Around 796, Alcuin, Charlemagne’s advisor, wrote to him regarding the importance of the Slavic and Avar peoples, emphasizing their potential for conversion: “The peoples to the east are indeed fertile ground for the Lord’s harvest.” This reflected the dual objectives of spiritual and political consolidation in the region.

The process of Christianization began with Charlemagne’s military campaigns and continued after his death in 814. Ecclesiastical authorities, such as Bishop Arn of Salzburg, were instrumental in reinforcing Christian rule in these territories. Richard E. Sullivan writes in The Carolingian Renaissance: A Reappraisal (1980), “The Conventus of Salzburg, under Alcuin’s guidance and his successors, cemented the Christianization of these eastern regions, ensuring the legacy of Charlemagne’s reign.”

-> Purberg Hill: Sacred Limestone and Its Transition to Christianity

Purberg Hill, the future site of the Mariatrost Basilica, is composed of Devonian Schöckl limestone, formed over 400 million years ago during the Devonian period. This limestone is known for its karstic features, including caves and gorges, which were regarded as spiritual gateways by the Celtic and Illyrian tribes. As Alfred Hasslinger explains in his Archaeological Insights on Purberg Hill (1978), “The sacredness of the limestone, with its reflective properties and caves, was closely tied to fertility deities such as Brigid and Demeter.”

The limestone’s reflective properties and its ability to transform into lime when burned made it a potent symbol of spiritual purity, both in pagan and Christian traditions. The early Christian Church recognized the sacredness of this hill and began repurposing it for Christian use, building small structures that eventually paved the way for the magnificent Mariatrost Basilica.

-> The Small Church Built by the Order of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem

The first Christian structure on Purberg Hill was not the grand basilica we see today, but a much more modest church built by the Order of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem, also known as the Teutonic Order. This military order, which had been founded in 1190 during the Crusades, was tasked with rebuilding Christian strongholds that had been destroyed during the Ottoman incursions of the 16th century.

The original church, Maria Trost im Purbergschlössl (meaning Mary of Comfort in the Castle on Purberg), was built in the late 16th century, around the 1580s, on the ruins of earlier religious structures destroyed by the Ottoman Turks. The order brought relics with them from Jerusalem, including fragments of the True Cross. These relics became central to the church’s religious significance, attracting pilgrims from across Bavaria, Slovenia, and beyond. As Guy Halsall notes in Barbarians and the Transformation of the Roman World (2008), “Relics played a crucial role in restoring the spiritual integrity of Christian sites after Ottoman destruction.”

This small church served as the foundation for the later construction of the basilica and remained a place of pilgrimage for over a century before the decision was made to build a more substantial structure.

-> Construction of the Mariatrost Basilica: 1714–1724

By the early 18th century, the influx of pilgrims to Purberg Hill had grown to such an extent that the modest church built by the Teutonic Order could no longer accommodate them. As a result, in 1714, the decision was made to construct a new, larger church on the hill—a basilica worthy of its growing spiritual importance. The construction of the Mariatrost Basilica was commissioned by the local ecclesiastical authorities, and its design was influenced by Baroque architectural trends, which sought to create awe-inspiring religious structures that reflected divine grandeur.

The basilica was constructed between 1714 and 1724, taking 10 years to complete. It was built under the supervision of the architect Andreas Stengg, a prominent figure in Styrian Baroque architecture, who was responsible for several major church projects in the region. Stengg’s design reflected the Baroque style, with its grand curves, ornate decorations, and use of light to evoke divine splendor. The basilica was painted in a vibrant yellow, symbolizing spiritual illumination. As Jacques Le Goff explains in Medieval Civilization 400–1500 (1988), “Baroque architecture was designed to overwhelm the senses, creating a direct experience of divine majesty.”

The basilica was constructed to house both the statue of the Virgin Mary, which had been moved to the site from Rein Abbey in 1644, and the relics of the True Cross. The decision to build such a grand structure was not only to accommodate the pilgrims but to enshrine the relics and cement Purberg Hill’s importance as a pilgrimage site. This Baroque masterpiece, with its yellow facade, stood as a symbol of the transformation of Purberg Hill from a pagan site to a Christian center of worship.

-> Establishing Pilgrimage: A Spiritual and Political Tool

The establishment of pilgrimage routes to Mariatrost was a critical aspect of Charlemagne’s Christianization strategy. By encouraging pilgrims from Bavaria, Slovenia, and other regions to visit Purberg Hill, the Church fostered a sense of unity and shared religious identity. Inns and hostels were built around the basilica to accommodate the growing number of pilgrims, who came to venerate the Virgin Mary statue and the relics of the True Cross.

As Jonathan Sumption writes in The Age of Pilgrimage (2003), “Pilgrims brought more than just their prayers to holy sites—they brought commerce, creating a religious economy that bound the region together.” The pilgrimage route to Mariatrost not only strengthened religious devotion but also played a key role in supporting the local economy and reinforcing the Church’s spiritual authority.

-> The Role of Rein Abbey and Monastic Contributions

Rein Abbey, founded in 1129 by Margrave Leopold I of Styria, played a pivotal role in supporting the Mariatrost pilgrimage. Known for its agricultural innovations, particularly in the preservation of meat using salt and lime, Rein Abbey sustained both the local community and the pilgrims traveling to the basilica. As Richard Sullivan notes in The Carolingian Renaissance (1980), “Monasteries like Rein Abbey were not just spiritual centers but engines of local economic and social development.” The abbey’s role in providing food, shelter, and spiritual guidance reflected its broader contribution to the region’s Christianization.

-> From the Counter-Reformation to the Modern Era

During the Counter-Reformation, the Mariatrost Basilica became a symbol of Catholic resilience against Protestant influences. The decision to repaint the basilica in its original yellow during this period was a deliberate statement of Catholic triumph over the spread of Protestantism. As Jacques Le Goff explains, “The restoration of the basilica to its original yellow was a declaration of Catholic renewal and strength in the face of Protestantism.”

Today, the Mariatrost Basilica stands as a testament to Charlemagne’s enduring legacy in the region. Its Baroque architecture, pilgrimage routes, and connection to Rein Abbey continue to inspire faith and devotion. As Richard Sullivan aptly concludes, “The structures, the pilgrimages, the monasteries—these were not just religious gestures; they were part of a carefully calculated strategy for long-term political and cultural integration.”

Conclusion: A Lasting Legacy of Unity and Faith

Charlemagne’s Christianization strategy was not merely a religious mission; it was a masterful alignment of spiritual and political objectives that forged a powerful and enduring European empire. Through deliberate site selection, the integration of former pagan spaces, and the establishment of pilgrimage routes and monasteries, he unified diverse regions under one faith and one rule. This strategy not only cemented his political control but also ensured the longevity of the Christian church as a central institution in Europe.

Charlemagne’s legacy extended beyond his reign, influencing the Counter-Reformation and modern religious practices. The continuity of these elements, from church site selection to the symbolic act of painting churches yellow, reflects a deep intertwining of faith, culture, and identity. His unification efforts laid the groundwork for a cohesive Europe, where religious devotion became synonymous with political allegiance, a vision that persists in various forms even today. Through his actions, Charlemagne defined a path that shaped European history for centuries.

References

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