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The transition from monastic custodianship of agriculture to the rise of scientific institutions like the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) in Vienna reflects a significant shift in European civilization—a movement from a spiritually infused understanding of the natural world to a more empirical, secular approach. This evolution mirrors the continent’s grappling with the Reformation’s impact, leading to a perceived loss of the mystical and subjective experience of knowledge.

Abstract

This thesis explores the transformation of agricultural stewardship in medieval Austria, tracing the journey from the Benedictine and Cistercian monastic orders’ spiritual and agrarian guardianship to the establishment of scientific institutions epitomized by BOKU. Through an in-depth analysis of historical records, monastic charters, and contemporary studies, it examines how these religious communities served as sanctuaries of both spiritual wisdom and agricultural innovation. The study delves into their holistic approach to land management, farming techniques, and viticulture, and investigates the socio-economic and spiritual implications of their practices. Furthermore, it reflects on the cultural and existential consequences of the Reformation, which ushered in a secular paradigm, leading to the rise of scientific institutions and a shift away from the enchanted worldview that once permeated European society. This paper is not intended as a critique of BOKU or similar institutions; rather, it tells a story and calls for a rational approach to knowledge. Austria exemplifies this balance, a reflection of the ethos of BOKU and similar institutions across the nation.

Introduction

In medieval Europe, monasticism represented a harmonious blend of spiritual devotion and practical engagement with the natural world. In Austria, the Benedictine and Cistercian orders were not merely centers of worship but also custodians of agricultural knowledge and practice, inheriting and enhancing agrarian traditions from the Roman Empire and ancient civilizations. They transformed vast tracts of wilderness into fertile lands, embodying a worldview where the divine and the earthly were intertwined. However, the advent of the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century initiated a seismic shift. The Reformation’s emphasis on individual interpretation and critical thinking extended to scientific inquiry, promoting free scientific thinking. This movement, coupled with the rise of scientific rationalism, led to the secularization of knowledge and the marginalization of the mystical aspects of existence. The establishment of institutions like BOKU in 1872 symbolizes this transition—a move towards empirical science and away from the monastic synthesis of faith and reason. This thesis aims to illuminate the depth of monastic contributions to agriculture and reflect on the cultural metamorphosis that led to the current scientific paradigm, pondering the spiritual costs of this transformation.

By examining this historical trajectory, the study seeks to offer insights into the complex interplay between spirituality, knowledge, and societal change, inviting readers to contemplate the balance between empirical understanding and the experiential, subjective dimensions of human existence.

References

“Lilienfelderhof.” Wikipedia, 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilienfelderhof

“Early Horticulture of Benedictines and Cistercians.” Decoded Past, 2012. https://decodedpast.com/early-horticulture-of-benedictines-and-cistercians/

“The Protestant Reformation: A Catalyst for Change in European Christianity.” Our History, 2016. https://www.ourhistory.org.uk/the-protestant-reformation-a-catalyst-for-change-in-european-christianity/

“Admont Abbey and the Benedictine Order: A Volcanic Revelation in Medieval Meat Curing and Agricultural Science.” Earthworm Express, 2023. https://earthwormexpress.com/sacred-salt-and-the-northern-gods/holisticus-index-page/admont-abbey-and-the-benedictine-order-a-volcanic-revelation-in-medieval-meat-curing-and-agricultural-science/

“Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation.” Warwick Economics Research Paper Series, 2016. https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/research/workingpapers/2016/twerp_1105_becker.pdf

“Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Europe.” Oxford Academic, 2020. https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/37088/chapter/323186686

“The Religious Roots of the Secular West: The Protestant Reformation and the Allocation of Resources in Europe.” CEPR, 2017. https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/religious-roots-secular-west-protestant-reformation-and-allocation-resources-europe

“Reformation | Definition, History, Summary, Reformers, & Facts.” Britannica, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/event/Reformation

The Roman Empire’s agricultural practices were instrumental in sustaining its vast territories, integrating diverse techniques from conquered regions and emphasizing empirical observations—a precursor to the scientific method. Roman agronomists, notably Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, documented comprehensive farming methods. In his seminal work, De Re Rustica, Columella detailed practices such as crop rotation, irrigation, and the use of organic fertilizers to enhance productivity and soil fertility. He also addressed the importance of selecting appropriate farming sites, water supply management, and the cultivation of various crops and livestock (Columella, De Re Rustica, 1st century CE).

The Romans developed advanced food storage methods, constructing warehouses and cellars that maintained stable temperatures and humidity levels to preserve produce. These innovations were crucial for sustaining urban populations and military campaigns, ensuring a steady food supply throughout the empire (Roman-Empire.net, “Roman Agriculture: Top 5 Roman Agricultural Practices,” 2023).

The decline of the Roman Empire in the 5th century led to widespread societal upheaval. Diminished trade and agricultural productivity contributed to increased poverty and resource scarcity. In response, Charlemagne, crowned Emperor in 800, sought to revive the Western Roman Empire’s legacy. He implemented reforms to centralize administration and promote education, recognizing the importance of agricultural advancement for economic stability. Charlemagne’s efforts included the standardization of weights and measures, the introduction of new agricultural techniques, and the promotion of both local and long-distance trade (Lumen Learning, “Charlemagne’s Reforms,” 2016).

These reforms laid the groundwork for the Carolingian Renaissance, a period marked by cultural and intellectual revival. By fostering education and economic development, Charlemagne’s policies helped to stabilize and revitalize Western Europe in the aftermath of Rome’s fall (Lumen Learning, “Charlemagne’s Reforms,” 2016).

In this context, monasteries emerged as pivotal institutions in preserving and advancing agricultural knowledge. Following the Rule of St. Benedict established in the 6th century, Benedictine monasteries emphasized self-sufficiency and manual labor. They became centers for the preservation and dissemination of agricultural knowledge, meticulously copying and maintaining agricultural manuscripts to ensure the survival of Roman agronomic texts. This effort was crucial in preserving agricultural techniques during times when such knowledge might have been lost (Metanexus, “Medieval Monasticism as Preserver of Western Civilization,” 2011).

Beyond preservation, Benedictine monasteries actively applied and adapted this knowledge. They reclaimed and cultivated lands that had suffered from neglect and overexploitation during the late Roman period. Their approach to land management involved careful nurturing of the soil, often starting with small garden plots, which eventually expanded into larger agricultural enterprises. This methodical cultivation helped restore fertility to exhausted lands (Beswick, Frank. “Early Horticulture of Benedictines and Cistercians,” Decoded Past, 2013).

The Cistercians, emerging as a reform branch of the Benedictines in 1098, sought a return to strict adherence to monastic rules, emphasizing manual labor and self-sufficiency. They often established monasteries in remote, undeveloped areas, transforming them into productive agricultural lands. Their grange system—a network of monastic farms—enabled efficient large-scale agriculture. For instance, Lilienfeld Abbey, founded in 1202, managed extensive vineyards and significantly contributed to regional viticulture (Jamroziak, Emilia. The Cistercian Order in Medieval Europe: 1090–1500, 2013).

The Cistercians were also known for their technological innovations. They developed advanced water management systems, including the construction of canals and watermills, which enhanced irrigation and mechanized various agricultural processes. Their expertise in hydraulic engineering allowed them to cultivate previously unusable lands, thereby expanding agricultural production (Church in History, “Chapter Three: How the Monks Saved Civilization,” n.d.).

Both Benedictine and Cistercian orders played a pivotal role in disseminating agricultural knowledge across Europe. Their monasteries served as centers of learning where agricultural techniques were taught and shared. They provided practical training to laypeople and other monastic communities, facilitating the spread of advanced farming methods. This educational role was crucial in standardizing and improving agricultural practices throughout the continent (The Medieval Guide, “Medieval Monasticism Explained: The Rise, Role, and Rituals,” 2022).

In summary, the Benedictine and Cistercian orders were central to the preservation and advancement of agricultural knowledge in medieval Europe. Through their diligent efforts in manuscript preservation, land reclamation, technological innovation, and education, they ensured the continuity and enhancement of agrarian practices from the Roman era into the medieval period.

References

Benedictine Contributions to Agricultural Preservation

The Benedictines, adhering to the Rule of St. Benedict established in the 6th century, emphasized self-sufficiency and manual labor. Their monasteries became centers for the preservation and dissemination of agricultural knowledge. They meticulously copied and maintained agricultural manuscripts, ensuring the survival of Roman agronomic texts. This effort was crucial in preserving agricultural techniques during times when such knowledge might have been lost. As noted, “Monastic know-how pervaded Europe thus preventing a complete reverting to barbarism” (Metanexus, 2011).

Beyond preservation, Benedictine monasteries actively applied and adapted this knowledge. They reclaimed and cultivated lands that had suffered from neglect and overexploitation during the late Roman period. Their approach to land management involved careful nurturing of the soil, often starting with small garden plots, which eventually expanded into larger agricultural enterprises. This methodical cultivation helped restore fertility to exhausted lands. As observed, “The Benedictines were gardeners who did some farming” (Beswick, 2013).

Cistercian Innovations in Agricultural Practices

The Cistercians, emerging as a reform branch of the Benedictines in 1098, sought a return to strict adherence to monastic rules, emphasizing manual labor and self-sufficiency. They often established monasteries in remote, undeveloped areas, transforming them into productive agricultural lands. Their grange system—a network of monastic farms—enabled efficient large-scale agriculture. For instance, Lilienfeld Abbey, founded in 1202, managed extensive vineyards and significantly contributed to regional viticulture. As highlighted, “The Cistercian monks at Lilienfeld Abbey…were known for their contributions to viticulture and agriculture” (Jamroziak, 2013).

The Cistercians were also known for their technological innovations. They developed advanced water management systems, including the construction of canals and watermills, which enhanced irrigation and mechanized various agricultural processes. Their expertise in hydraulic engineering allowed them to cultivate previously unusable lands, thereby expanding agricultural production. As noted, “They pursued the breeding of cattle and agriculture, labored with their own hands, drained morasses, and cleared away forests” (Church in History, n.d.).

Dissemination of Agricultural Knowledge

Both orders played a pivotal role in disseminating agricultural knowledge across Europe. Their monasteries served as centers of learning where agricultural techniques were taught and shared. They provided practical training to laypeople and other monastic communities, facilitating the spread of advanced farming methods. This educational role was crucial in standardizing and improving agricultural practices throughout the continent. As observed, “Not only did these monasteries serve as centers for worship and contemplation, but they also became hubs for learning, agricultural development, and preservation of classical knowledge” (The Medieval Guide, 2022).

In summary, the Benedictine and Cistercian orders were central to the preservation and advancement of agricultural knowledge in medieval Europe. Through their diligent efforts in manuscript preservation, land reclamation, technological innovation, and education, they ensured the continuity and enhancement of agrarian practices from the Roman era into the medieval period.

References

Beswick, Frank. 2013. “Early Horticulture of Benedictines and Cistercians.” Decoded Past, April 30.

Church in History. n.d. “Chapter Three: How the Monks Saved Civilization.” Church in History Information Centre.

Jamroziak, Emilia. 2013. The Cistercian Order in Medieval Europe: 1090–1500. London: Routledge.

Metanexus. 2011. “Medieval Monasticism as Preserver of Western Civilization.” Metanexus, June 6.

The Medieval Guide. 2022. “Medieval Monasticism Explained: The Rise, Role, and Rituals.” The Medieval Guide, August 15.

Economic Impact of Monastic Agriculture

By the late 18th century, monastic estates were substantial landholders. In 1780, monasteries owned approximately 20% of all land in Lower Austria, underscoring their significant influence on the agrarian economy. This extensive land ownership enabled monasteries to play a pivotal role in regional economic activities, including agriculture, forestry, and wine production (Lawrence 2001, 112).

Preservation and Innovation

Monasteries played a crucial role in preserving agricultural knowledge through turbulent periods, such as the fall of the Roman Empire and subsequent societal upheavals. They maintained and copied agricultural texts, experimented with crop rotation, and improved animal breeding practices. Their contributions laid the groundwork for agricultural practices that would later be adopted and expanded upon by secular institutions (Melville 2016, 95).

During the medieval period, the Catholic Church, particularly through its monastic orders, played a pivotal role in the preservation and advancement of agricultural practices. Monasteries became centers of learning and innovation, ensuring the continuity of agrarian knowledge from antiquity. However, over time, various factors led to a transition of agricultural custodianship from ecclesiastical to secular hands.

Monastic Custodianship of Agriculture

Monasteries were instrumental in maintaining agricultural knowledge during the Middle Ages. They preserved classical texts and developed new farming methods. As noted, “Monasteries played important roles in medieval society. They were centers of learning, where monks copied and preserved classical texts. They were also centers of agriculture, as monks developed new methods of farming and land management” (History Tools, 2023).

The Benedictine monks, following the Rule of St. Benedict, emphasized manual labor alongside spiritual duties. This approach led them to clear and cultivate vast tracts of land, integrating agriculture with their religious mission. As observed, “The Benedictine monks were the agriculturists of Europe; they cleared it on a large scale, associating agriculture with preaching” (Church in History, n.d.).

Similarly, the Cistercian order, established in 1098, sought to return to strict observance of monastic rules, emphasizing manual labor and self-sufficiency. They often settled in remote, undeveloped areas, transforming them into productive agricultural lands. Their grange system—a network of monastic farms—allowed for efficient large-scale agriculture. For example, Lilienfeld Abbey, founded in 1202, managed extensive vineyards and contributed significantly to regional viticulture. As highlighted, “The Cistercian monks at Lilienfeld Abbey…were known for their contributions to viticulture and agriculture” (Jamroziak, 2013).

Transition to Secular Agricultural Management

The shift from monastic to secular dominance in European agriculture and academia was influenced by several key factors:

Economic Changes

The rise of a market-oriented economy in late medieval Europe diminished the economic power of monasteries. Secular landlords and an emerging bourgeoisie began to dominate agricultural production and trade, leading to a decline in monastic economic influence. For instance, in the 14th century, the growth of urban centers and the expansion of trade networks allowed merchants and secular landowners to amass wealth and land, reducing the relative economic power of monastic institutions. This shift is discussed in The Cambridge Economic History of Europe (Postan and Miller, 1987).

Political Developments

The consolidation of nation-states and the centralization of political power reduced the autonomy of monastic institutions. Secular authorities increasingly intervened in monastic affairs, often appropriating monastic lands and resources. For example, during the French Revolution (1789–1799), the National Assembly enacted the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790, leading to the confiscation of church lands and the dissolution of monastic orders. This event is detailed in A History of Modern France (Cobban, 1961).

Religious Reforms

The perceived corruption within the medieval Church spurred movements like the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, challenging the authority and practices of the Catholic Church. This led to widespread secularization of church lands and properties. In 1525, during the German Peasants’ War, many monastic lands were seized by secular authorities, transferring control from religious to secular hands. This is examined in The Reformation: A History (MacCulloch, 2003).

Technological Advancements

The rise of universities and the invention of the printing press in the 15th century facilitated the dissemination of agricultural knowledge beyond monastic walls, reducing the Church’s monopoly on such expertise. Secular society increasingly adopted and further developed these techniques, leading to broader agricultural innovation. For example, the publication of agricultural manuals, such as Pietro de’ Crescenzi’s Opus Ruralium Commodorum in 1471, made advanced farming practices accessible to a wider audience. This development is discussed in Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther (Edwards, 1994).

These factors collectively shifted the custodianship of agricultural knowledge and practice from monastic institutions to secular entities, reshaping Europe’s academic and agricultural landscapes.

References

  • Cobban, A. (1961). A History of Modern France. London: Penguin Books.
  • Edwards, M. (1994). Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • MacCulloch, D. (2003). The Reformation: A History. New York: Viking.
  • Postan, M. M., & Miller, E. (1987). The Cambridge Economic History of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

The timeline effectively outlines the transition of agricultural and academic authority from monastic to secular institutions in Europe. To enhance clarity and depth, consider the following revisions:

12th to 14th Centuries:

Monasteries were not passive repositories of family property. As the self-styled ‘houses of God’—organized according to a Rule, administered by a system of internal governance and set off by rites of passage which reminded members of their primary obedience to God and His representative, the abbot—they possessed a strong sense of their own institutional rights and responsibilities.

Oxford Academic

16th Century:

The Protestant Reformation challenged the authority and practices of the Catholic Church, leading to widespread secularization of church lands and properties. This movement significantly reduced monastic control over agricultural estates, transferring them to secular rulers and private owners.

Wikipedia

18th Century:

Enlightenment ideals and reforms further diminished the Church’s role in agriculture. In Austria, Emperor Joseph II implemented policies that closed monasteries not directly contributing to social welfare, such as those not involved in education or healthcare. This led to the redistribution of monastic lands to secular hands, accelerating the transition.

Habsburger

These revisions provide specific examples and sources, enhancing the timeline’s accuracy and comprehensiveness.

Conclusion

The Catholic Church, through its monastic orders, served as a custodian of agricultural knowledge and practices during the medieval period. However, a confluence of economic, political, religious, and technological changes from the late medieval period through the Enlightenment era led to a gradual shift of agricultural management from monastic institutions to secular entities. This transition marked a significant transformation in the control and development of agricultural practices in Europe.

References

  • Cambridge University Press. 2019. “Carolingians and Ecclesiastical Property.” In Politics and Power in Early Medieval Europe, 4513C33188BD8777AED0A6D958EA229A.
  • Church in History. n.d. “Chapter Three: How the Monks Saved Civilization.” Church in History Information Centre.
  • History Tools. 2023. “The Power of the Medieval Church: A Historian’s Perspective.” History Tools.
  • Jamroziak, Emilia. 2013. The Cistercian Order in Medieval Europe: 1090–1500. London: Routledge.
  • World History Encyclopedia. 2018. “The Medieval Church.” World History Encyclopedia.

The evolution of agricultural management from monastic stewardship to secular oversight is a narrative rich with scientific innovation and societal transformation. This journey is marked by the establishment of agricultural research stations, pioneering contributions from scientists like Jean-Baptiste Boussingault and Justus von Liebig, and the emergence of institutions such as the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) in Austria.

The Dawn of Agricultural Research Stations

The 19th century witnessed a burgeoning interest in applying scientific principles to agriculture, leading to the creation of dedicated research institutions. A notable pioneer was Jean-Baptiste Boussingault, who, in 1836, established the first agricultural experiment station on his wife’s estate in Pechelbronn, Alsace, France. This initiative laid the groundwork for systematic agricultural experimentation. citeturn0search24

Following this, in 1843, Sir John Bennet Lawes founded the Rothamsted Experimental Station in England, which is recognized as the longest continuously operating agricultural research station. Germany soon followed suit with the establishment of the Möckern Experimental Station near Leipzig in 1851, marking a significant advancement in the scientific study of agriculture. citeturn0search16

Jean-Baptiste Boussingault: A Pioneer in Agricultural Science

Born on February 2, 1802, in Paris, France, Jean-Baptiste Boussingault was a French chemist who made significant contributions to agricultural science. His work included the first analysis of crops grown in rotation and the discovery that plants do not absorb nitrogen from the air but from the soil in the form of nitrates. citeturn0search2

Justus von Liebig: The Catalyst of Agricultural Chemistry

Amidst this era of scientific exploration, Justus von Liebig emerged as a transformative figure. Born on May 12, 1803, in Darmstadt, Germany, Liebig’s early fascination with chemistry propelled him into groundbreaking research. His 1840 publication, “Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology,” revolutionized agricultural science by elucidating the chemical processes underpinning plant nutrition. citeturn0search5

Liebig’s work debunked prevailing misconceptions, such as the belief that plants derived carbon solely from humus. He demonstrated that plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and identified essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium as critical to plant growth. His “law of the minimum” posited that plant development is constrained by the scarcest nutrient resource, a principle that remains foundational in agricultural science. citeturn0search7

The Genesis of BOKU in Austria

The momentum generated by Liebig’s insights resonated across Europe, influencing agricultural practices and education. In Austria, this scientific awakening culminated in the establishment of the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) in Vienna in 1872. BOKU was conceived to integrate scientific research with practical applications in agriculture and forestry, reflecting Austria’s commitment to advancing these fields.

Austria’s Prowess in Organic Farming

Austria’s prominence in organic farming is a testament to its historical and cultural dedication to sustainable agriculture. Several factors contribute to this leadership:

  1. Historical Agricultural Practices: Austria’s tradition of small-scale, family-owned farms has fostered a deep connection to the land and a commitment to environmentally friendly practices.
  2. Supportive Policies: The Austrian government has been proactive in promoting organic farming through subsidies, certification programs, and research initiatives, creating a conducive environment for organic agriculture.
  3. Consumer Demand: Austrian consumers exhibit a strong preference for organic products, driving market demand and encouraging farmers to adopt organic methods.
  4. Research and Education: Institutions like BOKU play a pivotal role in advancing organic farming through dedicated research programs and educational curricula that emphasize sustainability.

Austria’s excellence in organic farming is a harmonious blend of historical practices, progressive policies, consumer preferences, and a robust framework for research and education. This synergy has positioned Austria as a leader in sustainable agriculture, reflecting a broader commitment to environmental stewardship and innovation.

References

The establishment of the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) in Vienna in 1872 was a pivotal moment in Austria’s commitment to integrating scientific research with practical applications in agriculture and forestry. This initiative was driven by a confluence of scientific advancements, political will, and societal needs.

Conception and Advocacy

The idea for BOKU was conceived in the mid-19th century, a period marked by significant scientific progress in agriculture and forestry. Austrian scientists and educators recognized the necessity for an institution dedicated to these fields, inspired by the work of pioneers like Justus von Liebig, whose research underscored the importance of scientific approaches to agriculture.

Prominent figures in Austrian academia and politics championed the establishment of BOKU. They argued that a dedicated institution was essential for advancing agricultural and forestry practices, ensuring food security, and promoting sustainable resource management.

Debates and Deliberations

The proposal to establish BOKU sparked extensive debates among policymakers, educators, and industry stakeholders. Proponents emphasized the benefits of scientific education in agriculture and forestry, while opponents questioned the allocation of resources and the necessity of a new institution.

These discussions took place in various forums, including academic conferences, government meetings, and informal gatherings. Advocates presented compelling arguments, supported by data and examples from other countries, to demonstrate the potential positive impact of such an institution on Austria’s economy and society.

Establishment and Early Development

After thorough deliberation, the decision to establish BOKU was finalized in 1872. The university was founded as the “k.k. Hochschule für Bodencultur” (Imperial-Royal College of Soil Culture), reflecting its focus on agriculture and forestry. The initial curriculum combined theoretical instruction with practical training, aligning with the institution’s mission to integrate scientific research with real-world applications.

The founding faculty comprised experts in various disciplines, including agronomy, forestry, and natural sciences. Their diverse backgrounds enriched the academic environment and facilitated interdisciplinary collaboration.

Impact and Legacy

BOKU’s establishment marked a significant advancement in Austria’s approach to agriculture and forestry. The university became a hub for innovation, contributing to the development of sustainable practices and influencing policies related to natural resource management.

Over time, BOKU expanded its academic offerings and research initiatives, adapting to emerging challenges and technological advancements. Today, it stands as a leading institution in the fields of natural resources and life sciences, upholding its founding principles of integrating scientific research with practical applications.

References

Conclusion

Benedictine and Cistercian monasteries in medieval Austria were central to agricultural innovation and land management. Their efforts in cultivating land, introducing advanced farming techniques, and managing extensive estates significantly contributed to the agrarian economy and the preservation of agricultural knowledge.

References

Clark, James G. 2011. “The Making of a European Order.” In The Benedictines in the Middle Ages, 1–20. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jamroziak, Emilia. 2013. The Cistercian Order in Medieval Europe: 1090–1500. London: Routledge.

Lawrence, C. H. 2001. Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages. 3rd ed. London: Longman.

Melville, Gert. 2016. The World of Medieval Monasticism: Its History and Forms of Life. Translated by James D. Mixson. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press.

Vogüé, Adalbert de. 2013. The Rule of Saint Benedict: A Doctrinal and Spiritual Commentary. Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications.

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