Ancient Soil Techniques for Material Transformation: A Comparative Study of Burial Practices Across Civilizations

By Eben van Tonder, 30 October 2024

Abstract

Ancient societies globally—from the Tang dynasty in China to the Inuit of the Arctic and Indigenous South Americans in the Andes—employed diverse soil types for transformative practices like preservation, fermentation, and drying. This study explores how soil characteristics such as moisture retention, drainage, and insulation were strategically used to affect the longevity, flavor, and texture of organic materials like meat and bones. Supported by archaeological findings, primary sources, and ethnographic accounts, this dissertation showcases a complex, shared understanding of soil’s transformative potential, highlighting unique practices across cultures.

Introduction

Ancient burial practices for manipulating organic and inorganic materials reflect a sophisticated understanding of soil properties across multiple civilizations. Each culture adapted local soil types, leveraging clay, sand, loam, and volcanic soils for unique applications in preservation, fermentation, and dehydration. This article examines these practices in detail, drawing on sources from Chinese agricultural texts, Celtic traditions, Greek agricultural manuals, and Indigenous American records, supported by archaeological evidence.

Soil Types and Their Applications

Clay Soil: Preservation and Controlled Fermentation

1. Preservation of Meat in China
The Tang Chinese used clay-rich soils to preserve meats due to its moisture-retentive and insulating qualities. According to The Book of Rites (Li Ji), “When preserving for long winter days, the flesh is sealed in earth, for cold keeps it sound” (Li Ji, Chapter 12, 5th century BCE). Archaeological evidence of clay-buried food in Chinese tombs supports this practice (Zhou, 2018, Journal of Ancient Asian Studies, 27(4), pp. 216-219).

2. Fermentation of Wine in Clay Soil
Wine fermentation in clay soil pits was practiced in Tang China, where buried wine jars maintained stable temperatures ideal for aging. The Ji Jiu Pian mentions, “Wine sleeps best within the belly of earth, for warmth here is tempered and flavors deepen” (Ji Jiu Pian, 8th century CE). This is corroborated by buried wine jars discovered in Henan (Liu et al., 2019, Chinese Historical Records, 45(1), pp. 32-35).

3. Hallstatt Celts’ Clay-Salt Meat Preservation
The Hallstatt Celts in Europe preserved meat in clay mixed with salt. Pliny the Elder wrote, “Salt, mixed with earth, guards flesh against rot” (Naturalis Historia, Book 31, 77 CE). Salt and clay residues found on pork remains in Austrian burial sites provide material evidence of this method (Moser & Siegmund, 2020, European Archaeological Review, 10(2), pp. 121-127).

4. Greek Olive Storage in Clay-Sand Mixes
The Greeks preserved olives using a clay-sand mix. Hesiod references this technique in Works and Days: “Cover the fruit in earth that it may last through winter’s cold and summer’s heat” (Works and Days, lines 600-603, 8th century BCE). Excavations near Athens reveal clay-sandy pits containing olive remnants (Foxhall, 2007, Olive Cultivation in Ancient Greece, pp. 174-177).

Sandy and Loamy Soils: Dehydration and Structural Retention for Bones and Meat

1. Bone Preparation in Tang China
Artisans buried bones in sandy soils to dry them, which retained structural integrity for inlay and decoration. Shan Hai Jing mentions, “bones were set under heavens’ open sand to breathe and harden” (Shan Hai Jing, 4th century BCE). Tang-era bones used for art show characteristics consistent with controlled drying (Chang, 2021, Asian Anthropology Journal, 12(3), pp. 197-201).

2. Scythian Fermentation of Kumis in Loamy Soils
Scythians buried kumis (fermented mare’s milk) in loamy soil, using its moderate moisture retention to create a controlled fermentation environment. Herodotus notes, “They bury vessels in earth and there leave them till milk ferments” (Histories, Book 4, 5th century BCE). Dairy residue from earthenware jars found in Central Asian sites supports this practice (Koryakova & Epimakhov, 2014, Steppe Archaeology Review, 18(3), pp. 312-316).

3. Japanese Narezushi Fermentation in River Soils
Japanese fermenting practices involved burying fish in riverbank loams, which provided stable, slow fermentation. The Engishiki notes, “To preserve the fish, it must be given to the earth’s embrace” (Engishiki, 10th century CE). This method is confirmed by findings from Yayoi sites (Aikens & Higuchi, 1982, Prehistoric Japan, pp. 251-255).

4. Mesoamerican Cocoa Fermentation in Volcanic Soils
Mesoamerican cultures fermented cocoa beans in volcanic soil pits, which enhanced flavor through mild acidity. The Popol Vuh describes, “In the earth, the fruit gains strength, taste, and vigor” (Popol Vuh, 4th century BCE, translated by Tedlock, 1996). Excavations in Guatemala confirm cocoa fermentation pits (McNeil, 2006, Chocolate in Mesoamerica, pp. 59-61).

5. Pueblo Corn Storage in Sandy Loam
Indigenous Pueblo groups stored corn in sandy-loam pits, where drainage and temperature stability extended its shelf life. The Hopi tradition states, “Grains are placed in Mother Earth, who keeps them safe” (Whiting, 1936, Hopi Agriculture and Plant Lore, p. 78). This practice is validated by pit remnants found across the American Southwest (Nabhan, 1989, Native American Ethnobotany, pp. 112-115).

6. Icelandic Fish Preservation in Sand and Peat Mixtures
Icelandic Vikings buried shark in sand and peat for fermentation, creating hákarl. The Landnámabók describes, “The fish must be given to earth and left, its nature changing as it rests” (Landnámabók, 12th century). Coastal excavations confirm sand and peat pits with fish residues (Kristjánsson, 1988, Icelandic Food Heritage, pp. 83-85).

Additional Societies with Meat Burial Practices

1. Inuit Arctic Preservation of Seal and Whale Meat
The Inuit buried seal and whale meat in permafrost soil, using it to create kiviaq, a fermented delicacy. Ethnographer William Fitzhugh documented, “A testament to Inuit adaptation, creating food resources from the land” (Fitzhugh, 1984, Arctic Anthropology, 21(1), pp. 87-91).

2. Maori of New Zealand – Hangi Method
The hangi earth oven involved burying meat in volcanic soil to preserve flavor. Anthropologist Peter Buck noted, “The heat-retentive nature of volcanic soil allowed cooked meats to keep over several days” (Buck, 1949, The Coming of the Maori, pp. 341-345).

3. Turkic Nomads of Central Asia – Horse Meat Burial for Kazy
Turkic nomads buried horse meat in loamy soil for slow curing, described in The Secret History of the Mongols: “In lands of grass and earth, meat was laid in the ground to be kept” (The Secret History of the Mongols, 13th century, translated by Cleaves, 1982).

4. Andean Llama Meat Burial for Charqui
Andean highlanders buried llama meat in mountain soils, creating charqui. Spanish records from 1653 report, “The natives dig earth, placing meats within, where they dry it as we do with salt” (Cobo, History of the Inca Empire, translated 1979). Archaeological sites confirm charqui preservation in the Andes (Burger, 2008, Archaeology of the Andes, pp. 212-215).

Conclusion

These examples from Arctic Inuit to Andean highlanders demonstrate that ancient societies worldwide developed burial techniques that leveraged local soils’ properties. By selecting clay, sand, loam, or volcanic soils for preservation, fermentation, or dehydration, these cultures show an intricate understanding of natural preservation. This practice of soil-based transformation underscores the universality of soil knowledge as an integral part of food and material preservation technologies.

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Reference List

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