The Inughuit

The Inughuit, also known as the Polar Eskimos, are an Inuit group residing in northwestern Greenland. Their unique cultural heritage, shaped by centuries of isolation, offers profound insights into human resilience, migration, and survival. This comprehensive overview delves into their mythology, oral traditions, historical narratives, customs, and survival strategies, supported by academic references and direct quotations.

Mythology and Oral Traditions

Inughuit mythology is rich with narratives that reflect their understanding of the world and their place within it. These stories, passed down through generations, serve as both entertainment and instruction, embedding cultural values and survival wisdom.

1. The Sea Goddess (Sedna)

One of the central figures in Inuit mythology is the Sea Goddess, known as Sedna. Her tale varies among Inuit groups, but a common version among the Inughuit describes her as a young woman who, after being cast into the sea by her father, becomes the ruler of marine animals. Her story underscores the importance of respecting natural resources and the belief that human actions directly affect environmental harmony.

2. The Legend of Kiviuq

Kiviuq is a legendary hero in Inuit mythology, often depicted as a wanderer facing numerous challenges. His adventures, involving encounters with supernatural beings and overcoming various trials, symbolize the human struggle for survival and the quest for knowledge. These narratives highlight the virtues of bravery, adaptability, and resilience.

3. The Tale of Lumiuk

The story of Lumiuk tells of an abused blind boy who finds refuge in the sea, where he recovers his sight and ends his suffering. This narrative reflects themes of transformation, justice, and the belief in benevolent forces within nature.

4. Supernatural Beings

Inughuit oral traditions also speak of various supernatural entities:

  • Mahaha: A demon that terrorizes the Arctic and tickles its victims to death.
  • Ijiraat: Shapeshifters that can transform into any Arctic animal but cannot disguise their red eyes.
  • Qallupilluk: Scaly, human-like creatures that snatch children into the sea.

These beings serve as cautionary figures, teaching lessons about safety, respect for nature, and societal norms.

Historical Narratives and Migration

The Inughuit have a rich oral history that chronicles their origins, migrations, and interactions with other cultures.

1. Encounters with the Norse

Greenlandic oral traditions recount interactions between the Inuit and Norse settlers. These narratives often depict the Norse as “Kavdlunait” (foreigners) and describe both conflict and cooperation. Such stories provide insights into the cultural exchanges and territorial negotiations between these groups.

2. Migration Stories

Inughuit oral traditions include accounts of migrations prompted by environmental changes, resource scarcity, or social factors. These stories emphasize adaptability and the importance of community cohesion in the face of challenges.

Customs and Beliefs

Inughuit customs are deeply intertwined with their beliefs and environmental context.

1. Shamanism

Shamans, known as angakkuq, played a pivotal role in Inughuit society. They acted as intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds, performing rituals to ensure successful hunts, heal illnesses, and maintain social harmony. The angakkuq’s ability to navigate the spiritual realm was crucial for community well-being.

2. Taboos and Rituals

Strict taboos governed hunting practices, tool-making, and interpersonal relationships. For instance, certain animals could only be hunted during specific times, and tools had to be crafted following particular rituals to appease the spirits. These customs ensured sustainable resource use and reinforced social cohesion.

3. Storytelling

Oral storytelling was the primary means of preserving history, teaching moral lessons, and entertaining. Elders would recount tales during communal gatherings, ensuring the transmission of knowledge and cultural values to younger generations.

Survival Strategies

The Inughuit’s survival in the harsh Arctic environment was a testament to their ingenuity and deep understanding of their surroundings.

1. Hunting and Fishing

Their diet primarily consisted of marine mammals like seals, whales, and fish. The Inughuit developed specialized hunting techniques and tools, such as kayaks and harpoons, tailored to their environment. Communal hunts were common, emphasizing cooperation and resource sharing.

2. Clothing and Shelter

Inughuit clothing was expertly designed for insulation against extreme cold, using animal skins and furs. Their shelters, including igloos and semi-subterranean houses, were constructed to withstand severe weather while providing warmth and comfort.

3. Social Structure

A strong emphasis on kinship and community ensured mutual support. Decision-making was often communal, with leaders emerging based on skills and experience rather than hereditary status.

Academic References

  • Issenman, Betty Kobayashi. Sinews of Survival: The Living Legacy of Inuit Clothing. University of British Columbia Press, 1997. This work explores the intricacies of Inuit clothing, highlighting the relationship between attire and survival in Arctic conditions.
  • Thisted, Kirsten. “On Narrative Expectations: Greenlandic Oral Traditions about the Cultural Encounter between Inuit and Norsemen.” Scandinavian Studies, vol. 73, no. 3, 2001, pp. 253-296. This article examines Greenlandic oral traditions concerning interactions between Inuit and Norse settlers.
  • Houston, James. “Inuit Traditional Stories.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, 7 Feb. 2006, updated 15 June 2023. This entry provides an overview of Inuit myths and legends, emphasizing their cultural

The Use of Animal Sinew in Inughuit Tools and Technology

Before their contact with Europeans in 1818, the Inughuit relied entirely on natural materials from their environment to craft tools, weapons, and daily necessities. One of the most important and versatile materials in their toolkit was animal sinew, which functioned as thread, rope, bowstrings, bindings, and adhesive in the absence of metal, plant fibers, or modern synthetic materials.

Sinew—the strong, fibrous connective tissue found in the tendons and ligaments of animals—was prized for its flexibility, durability, and resistance to moisture, making it an indispensable material in Arctic survival.

Sources of Sinew

The Inughuit sourced sinew from several animals, each offering different strengths:

  • Caribou (Reindeer) – Caribou provided long and durable sinews, ideal for making bowstrings, thread for sewing clothes, and lashings for sleds. However, caribou were rare in northern Greenland, so sinew from marine mammals was more commonly used.
  • Seals (Ringed and Harp Seals) – Seal sinew was highly resistant to moisture, making it perfect for sewing waterproof clothing, kayak lashings, and harpoon bindings.
  • Walruses – Walrus tendons were thicker and extremely strong, making them ideal for heavy-duty bindings like dog sleds, umiak (skin boats), and tool handles.
  • Polar Bears – Though less common, polar bear sinew was valued for its exceptional tensile strength and was sometimes used in reinforcing hunting equipment.
  • Whales – The fibrous tissues of large whales were occasionally used for rope-making and structural bindings.

How Sinew Was Processed and Used

To use sinew effectively, the Inughuit developed specialized techniques for extraction, drying, and preparation:

  1. Tendon Extraction: After butchering an animal, the Inughuit carefully removed tendons and ligaments from the legs, back, and shoulders. The longer the tendon, the more useful it was.
  2. Drying and Preserving: The tendons were stretched and air-dried in the cold Arctic air or smoked lightly to prevent decay.
  3. Splitting into Fibers: Once dried, sinew was either pounded with stones or chewed to separate it into individual fibers, which could be used as thread, string, or cordage.
  4. Twisting and Braiding: Thin sinew strands were twisted into cords or braided into thick ropes for heavy-duty use.
  5. Softening for Use: Before being used for sewing or binding, sinew could be moistened with saliva or water to make it pliable. Once dried in place, it shrank and tightened, creating an extremely strong hold.

Primary Uses of Sinew in Inughuit Society

Sinew had countless applications in Inughuit life, allowing them to craft tools, weapons, clothing, boats, sleds, and more.

1. Weapon and Tool Construction

  • Harpoon Lashings: The Inughuit relied on seals, walruses, and whales for survival. Their harpoons, made from driftwood, bone, or antler, were tightly bound with sinew to secure the spearhead. The shrinkage of drying sinew created an unbreakable bond, ensuring that the spearhead did not detach upon impact.
  • Bowstrings: Though bows were rare in northern Greenland, they were occasionally used for hunting birds and small game. The bowstring was made from dried caribou sinew, which provided incredible tension and flexibility.
  • Knives and Ulu (Women’s Knives): The Ulu, a traditional curved knife used by Inuit women, often had a stone or bone blade attached to a handle using sinew lashings.

2. Clothing and Footwear

  • Thread for Sewing: Fine sinew fibers were used as thread for stitching clothing, boots (kamiks), and parkas made from seal and caribou skins. Unlike cotton or plant-based fibers, sinew had the advantage of swelling when wet, which made stitches tighter and more waterproof.
  • Boot Construction: Seal and caribou boots (kamiks) were sewn together using sinew, ensuring flexibility and waterproofing—essential for survival in wet and icy conditions.
  • Snow Goggles: The Inughuit made wooden or bone snow goggles to prevent snow blindness. The head straps were made from sinew, providing a flexible yet durable fit.

3. Kayaks and Boats

  • Kayak Lashings: Kayaks (qajaq) were made by stretching seal skins over a wooden or whalebone frame, fastened together with sinew lashings. The water-resistant quality of sinew made it the perfect binding material for Arctic boats.
  • Umiak (Large Skin Boats): Used for transporting families and goods, umiaks were stitched together using sinew to bind the seal or walrus hides stretched over a frame of whalebone or driftwood.
  • Repair Work: If a kayak developed a tear or loose joint, sinew could be quickly rewetted, tightened, and re-dried to create a durable patch.

4. Dog Sleds (Qamutik) and Transportation

  • Sled Lashings: Dog sleds were constructed using whale bone, driftwood, or hard ice, and the parts were lashed together using thick sinew ropes. Unlike rigid bindings, sinew lashings allowed for flexibility, preventing the sled from breaking over rough terrain.
  • Harnesses for Sled Dogs: Sinew was also used to create dog harnesses and traces, allowing sled teams to pull heavy loads across ice and snow.

5. Binding, Rope-Making, and Structural Use

  • Tent Construction: Summer tents were made by stretching animal hides over a frame and securing them with sinew ropes.
  • Fish Nets and Traps: Sinew was occasionally woven into fishing nets or used as a binding material for stone and bone fish traps.
  • Structural Reinforcement: Large pieces of driftwood, whale bone, or sled runners were reinforced by binding them with sinew, ensuring greater strength and flexibility.

6. Natural Adhesive and Composite Materials

  • Glue: When boiled down into a sticky resin, sinew could be used as glue for reinforcing harpoons, sleds, and even weapon shafts.
  • Bow Reinforcement: Some Inuit bows were strengthened by gluing sinew to the back of the bow, adding power and durability.

Impact of European Contact on Sinew Use

When John Ross and his British expedition encountered the Inughuit in 1818, they introduced iron tools, firearms, and sewing needles. This profoundly changed how the Inughuit made their tools and clothing:

  • Metal blades replaced stone knives, reducing the need for sinew lashings.
  • Metal needles and cotton thread replaced sinew in sewing.
  • Guns and metal harpoons changed hunting methods, making sinew-reinforced harpoons less necessary.

However, sinew did not disappear entirely. Even after European contact, the Inughuit continued using sinew for clothing, kayaks, and sleds where its unique properties were unmatched.

Conclusion: Sinew as a Symbol of Inughuit Ingenuity

The Inughuit’s use of sinew showcases their resourcefulness in adapting to their environment. Long before metal tools arrived, they engineered a sophisticated toolkit entirely from the animals they hunted. Even after European contact, sinew remained a crucial part of their survival technology, a testament to their deep knowledge of natural materials and their ability to thrive in one of the harshest climates on Earth.