By Eben van Tonder, 17 March 25

Abstract

This article examines the genus Stapelia, with a particular focus on its evolutionary adaptations for carrion mimicry, its morphological and chemical characteristics, and its position within cultural interpretations and symbolic frameworks. Stapelia serves as an example of extreme convergence between plant and animal signifiers, exploiting sensory cues typically reserved for the animal kingdom. Through the integration of scientific studies and ethnobotanical records, the paper highlights the plant’s ecological strategy and its symbolic resonance.

Introduction

Plants that employ deceptive strategies to attract pollinators challenge common distinctions between flora and fauna. The genus Stapelia, commonly known as the “carrion flower,” exemplifies this phenomenon. Native to southern Africa, Stapelia species produce large, fleshy flowers that emit odours chemically similar to decaying flesh. These traits have earned them a place in both scientific literature and cultural interpretations as representations of death and decay. This paper explores the morphology, evolutionary biology, and ethnobotanical significance of Stapelia, focusing on the complex interface between life and death they symbolise.

Morphology and Chemical Ecology of Stapelia

Morphological Adaptations

The flowers of Stapelia are characterised by their star-shaped corolla, often reaching diameters of up to 40 cm in Stapelia gigantea (Dyer, 1983). The surfaces of these flowers frequently display hair-like trichomes and exhibit colouration and texture reminiscent of raw or decaying meat (Bruyns, 2005). These morphological adaptations have been interpreted as evolutionary strategies to attract saprophagous flies (Jürgens et al., 2006).

Chemical Mimicry

The olfactory signals of Stapelia flowers are central to their pollination strategy. Analyses have identified volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as dimethyl disulphide and dimethyl trisulphide, which are also prominent in decomposing animal tissue (Johnson & Jürgens, 2010). According to Jürgens et al. (2006), the emission of these sulphur-containing compounds mimics the chemical profile of carrion, attracting blowflies (Calliphoridae) and flesh flies (Sarcophagidae), which act as pollinators under false pretences.

Evolutionary Biology of Carrion Mimicry

Sapromyiophily: Pollination Through Deception

The pollination syndrome employed by Stapelia is referred to as sapromyiophily, wherein flowers mimic the visual and olfactory characteristics of decaying organic matter to deceive flies seeking oviposition sites (Proctor, Yeo & Lack, 1996). Unlike mutualistic pollination systems, sapromyiophily involves no reward for the pollinator, a strategy described by scholars as “deceptive pollination” (Jürgens et al., 2006).

Convergent Evolution

The carrion mimicry exhibited by Stapelia has evolved independently in other angiosperms, including Rafflesia arnoldii and Amorphophallus titanum (Beaman et al., 1988; Seymour et al., 2003). This convergent evolution underscores the ecological efficiency of carrion mimicry in attracting specific pollinator guilds across disparate taxa and geographies.

Ethnobotanical and Cultural Interpretations

Indigenous Uses and Perceptions

Ethnobotanical records regarding Stapelia are limited, but there is evidence that the plant’s distinctive odour and appearance have led to its inclusion in local narratives concerning death and the afterlife (Fox & Norwood Young, 1982). In southern African contexts, the plant’s association with death is both literal and symbolic, given its reliance on olfactory mimicry to simulate putrefaction.

Symbolism and Folklore

While Stapelia lacks extensive documentation in traditional folklore, its status as a “death flower” has been reinforced through cultural interpretations that link it to liminal spaces. In symbolic terms, the plant occupies a position between life and death—its reproductive success hinges on mimicking decomposition, a state transitional between the living and the dead. As Lakoff and Johnson (1980) argue, metaphors of life and death often structure human cognition; Stapelia, by embodying the visual and olfactory markers of death, invites such metaphorical associations.

The Plant-Animal Interface: Symbolic Crossover

The sensory mimicry exhibited by Stapelia brings into question the conventional separation between plant and animal kingdoms. The plant’s tactile, visual, and olfactory characteristics simulate animal decay to such an extent that it appears to transgress botanical boundaries. As Barthes (1980) writes on the concept of mythologies, objects that cross category boundaries often acquire powerful symbolic resonance. Stapelia becomes an emblem of death’s cycle—its flowers mimic the decay of animal flesh to sustain life through reproduction.

Conclusion

Stapelia represents a remarkable instance of ecological adaptation and cultural resonance. Its evolutionary strategy of carrion mimicry exemplifies the complex interactions between plants and their pollinators, achieved through the simulation of decay. The symbolic interpretations surrounding Stapelia further illustrate the plant’s capacity to inhabit liminal spaces within cultural frameworks. Both scientific and folkloric perspectives converge in recognising Stapelia as a plant that challenges the boundaries of life and death, flora and fauna.

References

• Barthes, R. (1980). Mythologies. London: Paladin.
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• Bruyns, P.V. (2005). Stapeliads of Southern Africa and Madagascar. Vol. 1 & 2. Pretoria: Umdaus Press.
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• Fox, F.W., & Norwood Young, M.E. (1982). Food from the Veld: Edible Wild Plants of Southern Africa. Cape Town: Delta Books.
• Johnson, S.D., & Jürgens, A. (2010). Convergent evolution of carrion and faecal odours in fly-pollinated angiosperms. South African Journal of Botany, 76(4), 796–807.
• Jürgens, A., Dötterl, S., & Meve, U. (2006). The chemical nature of fetid floral odours in stapeliads (Apocynaceae–Asclepiadoideae–Ceropegieae). New Phytologist, 172(3), 452–468.
• Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Proctor, M., Yeo, P., & Lack, A. (1996). The Natural History of Pollination. London: HarperCollins.
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