The Sea and its Implications for Meat Science

“Discourse on Meat Science and Nutrition Along the Ancient Silk Road Between Hallstatt to Turpan”

Table of Contents

Introduction Sacred Salt and the Northern Gods

I chronicle a journey that intertwines historical and personal narratives with deep scientific exploration. The book explores how ancient mythologies encode principles of nutrition and well-being. Along the Northern Silk Road, from the Turpan Oasis in China to Hallstatt in Austria, I met the “Mirator Deorum Nordicum,” the Wonderer of the Gods of the North. She both wanders the earth and contemplates deeply. I call her the Wise Wonderer. We decided to travel these ancient roads together, to discover their secrets and investigate the wholistic and fundamental implications it has on our daily lives with particular reference to nutrition and meat science. What follows is our musings with deep implications for nutrition, well-being and meat processing.

Defrosting, Freezing, Bacteria Starter Cultures for Dry Curing

The discussion follows The Salt of the Land and the Sea from Bacon & the Art Of Living

Background

Contemplations of the ocean and lessons about bacterial life, salt levels, and the freezing and thawing of meat were precipitated by a fascinating discourse on the gods of the North and West Africa. On this particular occasion, we left Samarkand and travelled to Bukhara. We continued through the Kyzylkum Desert to the ancient city of Khiva. From there, we passed through the Karakum Desert towards the city of Turkmenbashi on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea.

Upon seeing the magnificent waters of the Caspian Sea, the Wise Wanderer (Mirator Deorum Nordicum) told me about Njord (Njörðr), the god of the sea, protector of sailors and fishermen, and controller of the wealth of the people living along its majestic shores. “Njord is also associated with fertility,” she said, “as one of the Vanir gods connected with nature and prosperity. They contrast with the warlike Æsir gods.” This observation fascinated me, as I had long noticed the difference between the warlike gods of the desert and the nurturing and mysterious gods of the forests.

My wise companion shared that Njord is also a family figure with significant implications. “He is the father of the gods Freyr and Freyja, who, like him, are associated with fertility and prosperity.” What fascinated us was that his marriage symbolized the fusion of the mountains and the seas. Njord, closely associated with the sea, married the giantess Skadi, who loves the mountains.

I was intrigued, and I recounted to her the pantheon of deities I encountered in the holy city of Ile Ife in West Africa many years earlier. The small city of Ile Ife is the spiritual heart of the Yoruba civilization. “The gods of Ile Ife,” I began, “are divine entities, each embodying aspects of the natural world and human experience. The Yoruba deities, known as Orishas, govern everything from the wind and rain to love and war. Among these gods, Olokun reminds me of Njord.”

“Olokun is the god of the sea. He is the guardian of the ocean’s depths and, like Njord, is associated with wealth and prosperity. The ocean’s riches—pearls, coral, and the bounty of marine life—are under his dominion, making him a god of abundance. As with Njord, those who rely on the sea, fishermen and traders alike, seek Olokun’s favour, hoping for calm seas and prosperous voyages.”

I explained that Olokun’s influence extends beyond mere material wealth. “Olokun is also associated with deep mystical knowledge. Just as the ocean conceals its secrets in its depths, Olokun holds the esoteric wisdom of the universe. Olokun can grant insight into hidden truths, much like the ocean, in its depths, holds mysteries waiting to be uncovered.”

“Olokun’s fluid nature reflects the all-encompassing essence of the sea. His nature reflects the qualities of the sea. In his gender he is often depicted as gender-fluid, sometimes taking on male, female, or non-binary forms. In this way, he mirrors the sea’s ability to shift between calm and turbulent states. He is seen as someone adaptable and inclusive.

Olokun’s dominion extends beyond the seas and includes all water bodies, the oceans and seas. The deity’s influence encompasses both the vast, mysterious depths of the ocean and the surface waters, which leads to further discussion about dark oxygen, oceans of water under the oceans, and how microbes adapt to these environments. Olokun is associated with deep, esoteric knowledge, another way that he is fluid since the sea conjures up images and feelings of the unknown and the mystical, holding secrets beneath its waves.

“Olokun is sometimes a powerful, temperamental figure and other times he is a benevolent provider. Like the sea, he cannot be confined to a single nature or role, just like the ever-changing qualities of the waters that cover much of the earth.”

Olokun is married to Olosa, the goddess of the lagoon and freshwater. This union is the meeting of saltwater and freshwater, bringing together the totality of water bodies. This union of parts is similar to the marriage of Njord and Skadi, the mountains and the seas.”

All this led us to a discussion about dark oxygen and the existence of bodies of freshwater beneath the sea.

Dark Oxygen

“Dark oxygen” refers to the oxygen produced in the deep ocean without photosynthetic activity. This phenomenon was identified by a research team led by Professor Andrew Sweetman at the Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS). The team discovered that polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone—a vast region in the Pacific Ocean—generate oxygen through electrolysis. This process, driven by electric potential differences in these nodules, splits seawater into oxygen and hydrogen in complete darkness, challenging the long-held belief that oxygen production in oceans is solely reliant on photosynthesis.

Polymetallic nodules are small, mineral-rich deposits that form over millions of years, composed of manganese, iron, nickel, copper, and cobalt. The oxygen produced remains dissolved in the surrounding water due to the immense pressure at these depths, providing a habitat for unique bacterial communities. These bacteria have evolved to utilize the available oxygen, showcasing life’s adaptability in extreme environments. This discovery implies that oxygen could have existed in the deep sea independently of photosynthetic organisms, raising questions about the early conditions for aerobic life on Earth.

Freshwater Reservoirs Under the Ocean

Significant freshwater reserves, known as submarine groundwater, have been discovered beneath the ocean floor. These freshwater bodies, often found in continental shelves, are protected by impermeable layers of sediment or rock, preventing seawater intrusion and preserving their low salinity. These reservoirs likely formed during periods of lower sea levels when freshwater infiltrated porous rock layers and became trapped as sea levels rose.

These freshwater pockets can occasionally influence local marine environments by altering nearby seawater salinity if the freshwater escapes its containment. However, these effects are generally minor, as the global ocean’s salinity remains relatively stable due to large-scale processes such as evaporation, precipitation, river runoff, and ocean circulation.

Ocean Salinity Stability

Ocean salinity is maintained around an average of 35 parts per thousand through various processes:

Evaporation and Precipitation: Evaporation increases salinity, while precipitation decreases it.
River Runoff: Adds freshwater, locally reducing salinity.
Ice Formation and Melting: Sea ice formation excludes salt, increasing local salinity, while melting adds freshwater, decreasing salinity.
Ocean Circulation: Redistributes heat and salt, maintaining uniform salinity levels.

These processes ensure the stability of ocean salinity, essential for marine life, which is adapted to specific salinity ranges. The isolated phenomena of submarine groundwater and dark oxygen production add complexity to our understanding of Earth’s oceanic systems but do not significantly alter the overall salinity balance.

Lessons from the Oceans: Applications in Meat Science

The stability mechanisms in ocean salinity have parallels in meat science, particularly in managing salt and water dynamics during freezing and thawing processes.

Impact of Freeze-Thawing on Salt Levels in Meat Products

In meat processing, freeze-thaw cycles can lead to:

Concentration Gradients: Freezing excludes salts, concentrating them in the unfrozen liquid phase. Thawing may not fully equalize these gradients, leading to uneven salt distribution.
Cellular Damage and Drip Loss: Ice crystal formation can rupture cells, causing drip loss, which removes water, proteins, and salts, potentially altering the product’s overall salt content.
Textural Changes: Variations in salt and moisture content can affect meat texture, influencing quality and consumer acceptance.

Cryoprotectants: Mitigating Freeze-Thaw Damage

Cryoprotectants, such as sugars, polyphosphates, and glycerol, are used to prevent ice crystal formation and reduce cellular damage:

Sugars (20-50 g/kg) lower freezing points and stabilize membranes.
Polyphosphates (2-5 g/kg) bind water, reducing drip loss.
Glycerol prevents large ice crystal formation.

These additives help preserve the texture and moisture content of meat products.

Optimal Freezing and Thawing Practices

Rapid Freezing at -18°C or lower prevents large ice crystals, preserving meat quality. Controlled thawing, involving initial cold storage chilling for 12 hours followed by a water bath with air bubbling, is extremely effective. Adding salt to the water is less impactful than the rapid heat exchange facilitated by bubbling but if compressed air is not available, use between 5% and 10% salt in the water to thaw the meat.

If there is too much salt in meat, what one can do is use the forces of osmosis to “draw the salt out.” Soak the meat in fresh water utilizes osmosis to draw out salt, akin to natural desalination processes. This method effectively lowers salinity, especially when done in cold water with periodic changes.

Microbial Adaptation

The phenomena of dark oxygen and submarine freshwater reservoirs have led us to a discussion of microbes that adapted to these unique environments. While we are travelling with the caravans, we consume dried meat. I told the Wise Wanderer about microbes who similarly, in a unique way adapted themselves to the environment of food production and the drying and curing of meat in particular. This introduced the topic of Staphylococcus Carnosus.

Staphylococcus Carnosus in Dry-Cured Meats

Staphylococcus Carnosus is a coagulase-negative staphylococcus species predominantly associated with dry-cured meats. Named from the Latin “carnis,” meaning “meat,” it was first described in the early 1980s. The bacterium is notable for its ability to thrive in low-moisture, high-salt environments, common in dry-curing processes. It demonstrates high salt tolerance and produces enzymes like catalase and superoxide dismutase, which protect against oxidative stress. These adaptations allow it to survive and function in curing meat where it is responsible for much of its flavour and colour development through nitrate reduction and the oxidation of the amino acid, L-Arganine. (The Curing Molecule)

It is primarily found in meat products, but S. Carnosus has also been isolated from other fermented foods, such as fish. However, its primary role is in meat fermentation and curing. The evolution of these traits likely occurred over thousands to millions of years, suggesting that meat fermentation and curing techniques may date back to ancient human societies. The process that facilitated this adaptation is for sure the natural selection process which favoured S. Carnosus strains that could thrive and function effectively in these environments, leading to the specialized strains used today.

Finally

As we stood at the edge of the Caspian Sea, gazing into its boundless waters, I realised that the journey we embarked on was more than just a physical voyage; it was an odyssey through the depths of ancient knowledge and divine mysteries. The tales of Njord and Olokun, with their dominions over the seas and the treasures within, are much more than mythology. They became symbols of the forces that shape our world—forces that govern life, dictate the rhythms of nature, and safeguard the secrets of the deep.

In the face of such majestic forces, our endeavour to understand and utilise them, whether through the preservation of meat or the navigation of oceanic waters, is both humbling and grand. The dark oxygen of the deep sea, the hidden reservoirs of freshwater beneath the waves, and the adaptive wonders of microorganisms like Staphylococcus carnosus all speak to the incredible resilience and ingenuity of life. They remind us of the mysteries waiting to be discovered.

As the sun set over the Caspian, casting a golden glow over the water, I felt a profound connection to the ancient travellers and scholars who had sought to unravel these mysteries before us, and to my Wise Wandering companion. Science and myth converge, and all becomes real. The interplay of the elements and the divine leaves us in awe of the world’s complexity and beauty. In the end, our journey was not just about uncovering the secrets of the sea or the mechanics of meat curing; it was about our own connection and understanding of our place within the vast tapestry of existence—a place where gods and mortals alike seek to grasp the essence of the world around us.

Inder Page: Sacred Salt and the Northern Gods

Chapter 2:

References

Livescience.com – Details on the discovery and implications of dark oxygen.
The Independent – Information on polymetallic nodules and their role in producing dark oxygen.
The Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) – Research led by Professor Andrew Sweetman.
Scientific Drilling and Geophysical Surveys – Studies on submarine groundwater and its characteristics.
Schleifer, K. H., & Fischer, U.
Description of Staphylococcus Carnosus and its characteristics in dry-cured meats.
International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 1982.
Lüddecke, J., & Doberenz, C.
Characterization of the major autolysin (AtlC) of Staphylococcus Carnosus.
BMC Microbiology, 2021.
Ercumen, A., & Joyce, J.
Study on the discovery and characteristics of submarine freshwater reservoirs.
Nature Geoscience, 2019.
Fietzke, J., & Eisenhauer, A.
Exploration of submarine groundwater and its interaction with ocean salinity.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2006.